Learning in vivo

Six intervention categories for effective monitoring

While reading Burnard (1996) I was taken back in time in my days of actively monitoring interns on a work-based learning programme. My own career started as post-grad intern, which was rather haphazard. Later when I became responsible for the coordinating the under- and post-grad intern programme, my basic goal was to ensure a better experience for the interns.

Burnard (1996, p. 36) discusses Heron's (1986) 'six categories intervention analysis'. I reflected on my own experiences of having monitored numerous interns over several years. I discussed my monitoring methods with my partner and explained Heron's, and we concluded that all the methods I used are contained within Heron's six categories:

Heron is of opinion that apart form catalytic intervention, all five the other categories are of equal importance. I agree with Heron that catalytic is the bedrock intervention, because  the monitor first need to establish rapport. My approach has always been to make some small talk, then general personal well-being and then to focus the monitoring on the intern's progress. First just gathering information and recording such. Although recording is not a facilitation method, it is very important for effective monitoring. Same as a health-care practitioner keeps a file on each patient, should the work-based learning facilitator/monitor keep a file on each intern to record information and observations. With the next monitoring visit the records serve as mind jogger and come in handy during confronting, because their is some evidence. In addition to my records during a monitoring session, I always visited the mentor and concluded my visit to the company by discussing my findings regarding each intern with the head of department. Back in the office I confirmed my contracting with the intern and agreement(s) with the head of department in a letter to the company. A copy of the letter is placed on the intern's file for reference during the next monitoring visit.

Heron, J. 1986. Six category intervention analysis. 2nd edition. Human Potential Research Project. Guilford: University of Surrey.

Burnard, P. 1996. Acquiring interpersonal skills - a handbook of experiential learning for health professionals. 2nd edition. London: Chapman & Hall. 

Experiential, Practical & Propositional Knowledge

Although everybody learns from experience, nobody always learns from experience. Most at times repeat some mistakes, despite bad experiences. Burnard (1996) expresses surprises about how often he 'learned' the really important things in his life through experiences that he found interesting or important. It may therefore be assumed that for learning in vivo to achieve its desired objectives, the facilitator should make it to matter.

Learning from the mistakes of others is called vicarious learning by Burnard (1996). The experiences of other may make such an impression that we derive learning from it.

Burnard (1996) observes that all definitions of learning experientially have in common the first-person, living human being, taking note of what happens to apply to new situations in future.

Experiential learning is not just about learning from doing (or the observing of the experiences of other, as indicated above), it is also about deriving learning from reflecting. Burnard (1996) emphasise the latter, rather than just acting and possibly forfeiting the learning opportunity. To optimise structured in vivo learning, it appears that the facilitator should therefore 'build in' reflection, i.e. ensure 'noticing'.

Burnard (1996) emphasises the issue of reflection. People often proceed through life only half conscious, on 'auto pilot'. People often do not register what they are experiencing. Burnard emphasise the importance of 'mindfulness'. In the contemporary world of continuous change and coping with demands, people need to consciously pursue mindfulness (simply means to pay attention — to your body, to your mind, to your surroundings, to the people in your life, to the tasks you undertake).

Burnard identifies three types of knowledge, illustrated below, which are not independent, but supportive of each other.

Flowing from the above, Burnard (p. 9) redefines experiential learning as "any learning activity that enhances the development of experiential knowledge".

Burnard refers further to Paulo Freire's (1972) concept "praxis", which includes both reflection as well as action-on-the-world. Praxis implies transforming, which is one of the human's distinguishing features. Burnard also refers to George Kelly's (1955) notion of people going through life applying a modified scientific process, i.e. hypothesising about matters, observing reality and modifying of our hypotheses based on our findings.

Burnard, P. 1996. Acquiring interpersonal skills - a handbook of experiential learning for health professionals. 2nd edition. London: Chapman & Hall.

Learning swings like a subjective-door in its work-frame

Billett's (2006) views on work, subjectivity and learning captivated my full attention and prompted me to reconsider some personal viewpoints/assumptions.

During my undergraduate studies in pedagogy a lecturer remarked one day that 'learning is like a door on its hinges, any moment, regardless of the kind of activity, the door may swing and learning will occur'. Billett reminded me about this profound lesson, with his equally profound statement (p. 7) "[t]here is no difference between participating in work and learning". Similar to the door-metaphor, learning depends upon if the worker perceives the action as familiar or something novel -- in the case of the latter 'the door swings' and it is "generative of new learning". This is a very important notion to consider with regard to learning.

Billett defines (p. 4) work as an "individual's engagement in the goal-orientated activities that usually emanates from social and cultural purposes" and he states (p. 5) that "paid work might well be an unwelcome, but necessary intrusion" -- "there is a blurring here between non-paid and paid work" (p. 4) he remarks - learning is equally important in both. Billett (p. 4) asserts that in addition to "a cultural genesis", "a particular situated manifestation" and "in a particular workplace", work also "has personal dimensions". He further postulates that it is the "deployment of human subjectivities that shape how the work is conceptualised, engaged with and conducted".

Subjectivity, as emerging concept, defined by Billett (p. 5) "comprises the conscious and non-conscious conceptions, dispositions and procedures that constitute individuals' cognitive experience". Subjectivity is about individual "ways of engaging with and making sense of what we experience through our lived experience[s]". This sense of self is never static, but continually develops. Our individual subjectivity "compromise a set of conceptions, procedures beliefs and values and dispositions that are, in part, non-conscious (yet quickly becomes conscious when something we experience doesn't fit) and, in part, conscious" (p. 6). The concept of identity is further associated with subjectiveness, both from personal and societal perspectives.

Billett remarks that the relationship among work, subjectivity and learning is significant in order to understand how individuals learn, are motivated to and direct their own learning throughout their lives. This relationship is of utmost importance within the global emphasis on improving the capacity of human capital. Billett suggests a move away from behavioural and neo-behavioural approaches to learning, away from a focus mainly on observable performance outcomes and away from an emphasis on measurability. He urges that the social and physical context of work, as well as the dispositions and values of individuals that drive and energise them. He argues for an intertwining of the social and personal and recognition of the interdependence.

I have for a long time regarded the DACUM (designing a curriculum) method as appropriate for deciding what the work-based learning part of the integrated curriculum of a programme/qualification should entail. I have been an advocate of 'directing' the learner to achieve the predetermined measurable outcomes of the work-based learning part. Now I am not so sure any more.

Billett, S. (2006). Work, subjectivity and learning (pp. 1-20). In Billett, S., Fenwick, T. & Somerville, M (eds.) (2006). Work, subjectivity and learning - understanding learning through working life. Volume 6 of the UNESCO-UNEVOC book series on technical and vocational education and training: issues concerns and prospects. Dordrecht: Springer.

'Enculturating' a newcomer into a Community of Practice

In order to thrive in a continuously and unpredictably changing environment enterprise needs to continuously acquire new knowledge. Corporate knowledge (acknowledged synonyms are intellectual capital, intellectual property, knowledge assets, or business intelligence) is seen as the only sustainable source of competitive business advantage. Organisations therefore need to be able to learn faster than their competitors. However, new knowledge only acquire value when it is applied, which in turn brings about change of the environment, which generates value.

In addition to the application of new knowledge ‘agility’ is very important, for example an ‘agile enterprise’ or ‘agile manufacturing’. The word agile is associated with cats that are both physically adept at movement and also mentally adept at choosing the appropriate movement in a given situation. Like cats, an enterprise or a Community of Practice (means a group of people that are committed to particular work or professional practices) must closely align systems to changing business needs in order to retain a competitive edge.

People are at the heart of knowledge management. Organisations therefore must manage its employees in order to ensure the organisation’s knowledge agility. This requires both a change in organisational culture (i.e. informality and openness in knowledge sharing) and in human resource management (HRM) practices to allign both to the business strategy. One of the many aspects (read about other in an article about my DPhil consulting intervention - Download Groenewald.PDF ) to consider, is to make use of focussed work-based learning in order to 'enculturate' a newcomer.

Groenewald, T. (2004). Electronic document management: a human resource management case study. SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 2 (1),54-62.

Eleven models of work-integrated learning and their characteristics

Freestone, Thompson and Williams (2006) remark that the thick "sandwich year" model that has once been very popular, lost its appeal because it made the duration of the degree longer; the period of experience ('sandwich' - see also table below) has often been inadequately integrated into the curriculum; the resources to manage and supervise the experience declined; and it has been found that there has not been a materially improved marketability or learning of students (probably as result of the first three reasons mentioned?).

They also point out that their are competing umbrella terms and mention work-integrated learning, experiential learning and cooperative education. They use work-based learning in their article and also mentions internships and service learning.

They published the following eleven models of work-integrated learning:

In my own (2003, p. 79) research a participant uses the term in-house programmes (that is formal tertiary programmes presented within or for a specific enterprise, instead of a public programme that is open to anyone to apply) for the seventh model above: joint industry-university courses. My research indicates that the co-ordination responsibilities of in-house programmes are generally shared between the academic programme or project manager and a programme co-ordinator appointed by the enterprise.

A nuance difference is further evident in my research, where one participant refers to a ‘product’ presented in-house and the co-ordinator aiding the programme manager, whereas another participant refers to an enterprise programme that makes use of institution expertise. Dedicated trainers are exemplary of enterprises that take charge of the experiential learning component of cooperative education programmes.

Freestone, R., Thompson, S. & Williams, P. (2006). Student experiences of work-based learning in planning education. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 26:237-249. Electronically available at: http://jpe.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/26/2/237

Groenewald, T. 2003. The contribution of co-operative education in the growing of talent. D Phil dissertation, Rand Afrikaans University, Johannesburg. Available on the Internet at: http://etd.rau.ac.za/theses/available/etd-02242004-101223/

More to learning-in-experience than 'slave' of the global market machinery

I grew up in a 'good' Calvinistic environment, did obligatory national service, complete university studies and started my career with a post-graduate internship. I never questioned the 'primary purpose' of experiential learning as being to prepare people for profit making service and to keep people current as human capital. Tara Fenwick's monograph on a theoretical critique of experiential learning from five perspectives literally pulled the carpet out from under my beliefs. I am grateful!

The five perspectives (with Fenwick's descriptive titles in brackets) are:

• Constructivism
• Psychoanalytical (interference)
• Situative (participation)
• Critical cultural (resistance)
• Enactivist (co-emergence)

This post expands on another (http://psychsoma.co.za/learning_in_vivo/2008/08/a-brief-theoret.html) on the theory of learning from experience.

1. Constructivism

Meaning is constructed from reflecting on lived experiences, which is then interpreted and generalised. This acquired knowledge is stored in memory and transferred to future situations. The construction oscillates between assimilation (new knowledge constructs incorporated) and accommodation (altering of existing constructs when new experiences contradicts past knowledge).

David Boud asserts that preparation enhanced the learning; similarly do noticing and intervening of the participants actual experience; also the recalling and re-evaluation of the experience; as well as attending to the feelings provoked by the experience. The recalling and re-evaluation occur through four processes: association (relating to the familiar), integration (seeking connections), appropriation (making new knowledge your own) and validation (determine the authenticity).

Donald Schön emphasised workplace learning by dealing with problems, by noticing them and framing them, then enquiring and experimenting with solutions. Sometimes people reflect-in-action by improvising on-the-spot to resolve problems. Other times people reflect-on-action in a time zone after encountering the problem.

Jack Mezirow introduced transformative learning (one of the most influential ideas about adult learning that emerged in the past 20 years). Reflection is triggered when a problem, a disorientating dilemma, is encountered for which no ready solution is available. When the deep-seated beliefs or premises are questioned, critical reflection happens. When the taken-for-granted assumptions are challenged and result in dramatic shift then transformation occur.

In constructivism the educator's role vary between facilitator, instigator, coach and assessor.

2. Psychoanalytical (interference)

This perspective opens different ways of approaching the unconscious; Resistance to knowledge; a desire for mastery and closure; etc. Knowledge dilemmas are experienced within, as result of struggles between the unconscious and conscious, which result in anxiety that generates resistance to knowledge. The person (as a split) doing the experiencing has three registers with which her/his psychic world meets the external world, namely: the imaginary (childhood understanding of the self as undifferentiated from the mother and a desire to complete her); the symbolic (language and cultural issues); and the real (a sense of shortcoming, which cannot be understood by the conscious). People learn by working through the conflicts of psychic events. Experiential learning tolerates one's conflicting desires and grants the recovering from the terror of self-knowledge. Learning is about experimenting and willingly engaging in traumas of the self.

3. Situative (participation)

The learning is routed in the situation (knowledge flows in the action) wherein the experience occurs. The engaging in changing the human processes of a community defines the knowing and learning. Individuals learn by interacting with their community. The objective is not mere learning about, but to become a full participant in the community of practice, by experiencing (learning in it) at the margins (observation, try out and interacting in a small way) and gradually getting integrated into the full network. Learning is embedded and transformed when applied elsewhere.

4. Critical cultural (resistance)

Inevitably there are competing power and cultural relations present in any human system. When the mechanisms of power are identified, Resistance appear, which in turn can open people to unexpected, unimagined possibilities for growth and development. Learning is shaped by the discourses and semiotics (signs, codes and texts) of a particular cultural space. There are often dualistic categories (e.g. opposite genders, etc) representing unequal distribution of authority and resources. The labels assigned can legitimise, depersonalise or exclude, Discourses contain both winners and losers. Learning happens informally and incidentally, during everyday life. Some of the most distinguished learning (emancipatory experiential learning) occurs during struggle against some form of oppression, by trying to make sense of what is happening and how to fight/overcome it. The learning demystifies authority, give insight in different perspectives and if reconciliation is feasible.

5. Enactivist (co-emergence)

Here cognition and the simultaneous enactment of the environment, through experiential learning, is explored. Person and context are inseparable and change occur, as result of tinkering intentionally or unintentionally, from emerging systems. By participating (embedded in conduct), a person learns to participate more effectively. Tacit knowledge unfolds in circumstances that evoked the actions. Learning is a continuous exploration and invention. There is no absolute standard, adequate conduct is determined by what action serves the particular circumstances. The roles of educators might include communicator (helping to name what is unfolding), story-maker (help recording and tracing interactions), and interpreter ( help making sense of the patterns emerging).

Fenwick asserts that 'experiential learning' need to be continually unravelled and challenged. The premises and baggage associated must be questioned. We must question our personal motives and intentions with experiential learning.

Reference:

Fenwick,  T.J. 2001. Experiential learning: a theoretical critique from five perspectives. Electronically available at:   http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED454418&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED454418

The powerless/disadvantaged granted less credit(s)?

Susan Warner Weil and Ian McGill are well know for their 'four villages' metaphor concerning experiential learning:

1. Accreditation of learning that has been derived from experience (or RPL: recognition of prior learning) for granting credit at entry level. Reflection in this 'village' is about the recording of learning and assessment thereof. Also known as APEL: assessment of prior experience and learning; or PLA: prior learning assessment.
2. Challenging or complimenting the curriculum of higher and continuing education in that educators help learners reflect on their life experiences to unveil their concealed knowledge.
3. The third 'village' is about social change. Educators enable learners to transcend their limits and become aware of broader sociocultural dynamics.
4. This 'village' is about individual self-development for personal growth.

This post is focusing on aspects of the first 'village'. The first known RPL/APEL/PLA took place in 1946 in the United States when World War II veterans returned home and wanted their experience accredited to gain university entrance.

RPL/APEL/PLA is about learners seeking academic credits for life experiences or recognition of life experiences in order that learners do not have to repeat courses on areas of knowledge they already acquired. However, it is sometimes very difficult to articulate or demonstrate life experiences.

Institutions often limit applicants to organise their experiences according to only those competencies and concepts the institution decided are of value. Rich experiences of applicants might be excluded as result. The situation is compounded due to the excessive power of institutions, resulting in easily domineering the knowledge boundaries and the regulating of the particular hierarchical fit of the experience and/or the category the experience is deemed worthy. The experience of people are colonised by squeezing them into predetermined categories.

There is further the potential discrepancy between rich and unique personal experience versus what counts in terms of public discourse. Applicants may be compelled to construct their diverse selves to fit the recognised AP(E)L dimensions. Social inequalities are not accommodated. People from disadvantaged backgrounds often experience substantial opportunity barriers. Those with unusual life stories often find that their varied experiences and shifting identities are penalised.

A reading of Fenwick,  T.J. 2001. Experiential learning: a theoretical critique from five perspectives. prompted this post. Electronically available at:   http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED454418&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED454418

The significance of the hyphen

A hyphen is a punctuation mark that is used between parts of a compound word. It is a visual indication that the two words should be read as one.

Work-integrated learning is about integrating work (experience) into the curriculum of a qualification. It enriches the learning.

Work-based learning is about 'learning based-in-work'.

Guide, direct, conduct, steer, lead, navigate or pilot?

The term ‘guidelines’ is often used for the work-integrated learning ‘courseware’. According to the dictionary ‘guide’ usually indicates a close or personal relationship (or a joint effort) between two parties. It is suggested that the term ‘direct’, which means to indicate a course without actually guiding, would be more appropriate. Alternatively ‘conduct', which stresses the fact of escorting and the unequal (lecturer and student) relationship between the two parties (not implying coercion), or ‘steer’, which means to guide in a desired direction by a rudder or other means.

Whatever terminology is chosen for the work-integrated learning materials it should guide the student in the sense of directing (showing the way) — conduct, steer, lead, navigate or pilot — to achieving the desired learning outcomes.

See my post (http://psychsoma.co.za/learning_in_vivo/2008/08/waterfall.html) in this regard on the importance of asking the right questions.

Various modalities of work-integrated learning

Within the distance technikon education context of the former Technikon SA (merged 1 January 2004 with Unisa - http://www.unisa.ac.za) a range of modalities of work-integrated learning existed, e.g. a specific subject, a module, a project, one or more assignments, a mini thesis, a portfolio, a logbook, a diary and project file, case studies, a scrap-book, applied research, a business plan, a presentation or demonstration of a completed project or a business plan, etc. This outline endeavours to provide comprehensive yet concise information on how the different forms of distance education work-integrated learning are facilitated and assessed.

LOGBOOKS: Upon registration with the technikon for the work-integrated learning (period) subject or module (e.g. Engineering, Mining and Credit Management programmes) the student receives the relevant ‘courseware’, which typically includes a ‘tutorial letter’ explaining the experiential learning requirements, a letter of explanation to the workplace mentor/supervisor and the logbook. The student then proceeds with the required logbook entries, which are verified or evaluated by the mentor and submitted to the technikon. The lecturer concerned then moderates the completed logbook. Real Estate (Property Evaluation) students keep a logbook for application to register with the statutory body, which assesses the adequacy of the applicant’s field experience. This supplements the technikon study.

PROJECTS AND PROGRESS/SPECIFIC REPORTS IN CONJUNCTION WITH LOGBOOKS: In addition to the completion of logbooks, several programmes (e.g. Engineering programmes) require the submission of quarterly progress reports by the students, as well as a comprehensive work-integrated learning report at the end. The lecturer concerned assesses both types of reports. Other programmes (e.g. Applied Natural Sciences) require of students to complete projects and specific reports, in addition to logbooks. The workplace mentor (supervisor) signs these, after which they are submitted to the technikon. The staff concerned mark and evaluate the completed projects and/or specific reports after which an external industry practitioner quality assures them by moderation.

PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENTS: In some programmes (e.g. Library & Information Studies) the theoretical learning of most subjects is supplemented by a substantial practical assignment. Upon registration for the programme the student confirms her/his workplace mentor (professional librarian) who receives a comprehensive mentoring-guidelines brochure form the technikon. The student completes the practical assignment under the supervision of the mentor, who marks the assignment and submits it, together with an evaluative report, to the technikon for moderation.

PORTFOLIOS OF EVIDENCE: Portfolios are used in different ways by various programmes to facilitate and assess work-integrated learning.

• An applied competence assessment (2nd examination paper) in the form of a portfolio: In some cases (e.g. for certain subjects in Library & Information Studies) students are required to complete a portfolio of evidence and submit this to the lecturer concerned for assessment (where after it is moderated by external practitioners, e.g. for Tourism Management programme). This counts as second examination paper, in addition to the summative assessment of the theoretical learning.
• The portfolio is presented/demonstrated to a panel of assessors: In some cases (e.g. for the Public Relations Management and Safety Management programmes, as well as the final assessment of the work-integrated learning component of certain Applied Natural Sciences programmes) the student appears before a panel of practitioners and academic staff to present, explain and defend her/his portfolio.
• Practical portfolio based on professional practice: In the case of Child and Youth Development, students undergo periods of work-integrated learning under the supervision of a qualified practitioner. Several portfolios and/or practical assignments are completed based on observations and experiences, and then submitted for assessment.
• A portfolio of evidence of work experience: In a few cases (e.g. Human Resources Management — a personal development plan and portfolio; and Tourism Management) the student compiles a portfolio, based on work experience or visits to companies, which is submitted to the technikon for assessment. This is returned to the student, together with a letter of recommendation, to serve as evidence of exposure.

PRACTICAL PROJECT: For a number of programmes (e.g. Information Technology and Administrative Management) students are required to execute a project, which is submitted to the technikon for assessment. In the case of Information Technology the ‘product’ of the project is presented to a panel. The project evaluation counts as the mark for the module.

PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT(S): In some cases (e.g. Office Management & Technology) the experiential learning is facilitated by means of a practical assignment, which is submitted to the technikon for assessment (to a safety practitioner in industry for Safety Management and thereafter to the lecturer for moderation and capturing). This assignment counts towards the year mark, and in gaining examination entry.

APPLIED RESEARCH OR MINI THESIS: A few programmes (e.g. Tourism Management), require the students to conduct applied research or compile a journal (e.g. Economic Management Analysis and Transport Economics at B Tech level, keep a diary and compile a project file), which is submitted to the lecturer for assessment.

PRACTICE ORIENTATED ASSIGNMENTS AND CASE STUDIES A large number of programmes do not have an experiential learning component, but facilitate applied learning through assignments of an applied nature or research-type questions, a case study or a business plan. In the case of Small Business Management, a comprehensive business plan is presented to a panel for assessment.

PRACTICAL SESSIONS/WORKSHOPS OR LABORATORIES: The students of some programmes (e.g. Child and Youth Development and most of the Applied Natural Sciences’ programmes) are obliged to attend compulsory laboratories (block teaching/practical classes/workshops) where the focus is on the development of skills, laboratory or field experiments and in some cases the preparation of learners for the work-integrated learning component (the practical work in the field). Assessment is done through observation of participant competence.

Best practices

A report by a technical team  (29 March 2004, pp. 5-6) of the South African Department of Education about an investigation into  state funding of experiential or work-integrated learning at higher education institutions, included the following best practice of services that ought to be provided, by an institution to students that are undergoing work-integrated learning:

ORIENTATION — WORK PREPAREDNESS AND LIFE SKILLS PROGRAMME: Students receive instruction to prepare them for the world of work. Policy and ground rules clarify roles and the obligations of the students, technikon and industry in the co-operative education partnership. Students acquire job-seeking skills such as CV writing, application procedures, interview and presentation skills. Other life skills such as time management, team building and communication are also introduced.

LEARNING PROGRAMME: Learning criteria and specific outcomes are documented to give guidance to the student and mentors on the work-based training and learning areas for the specific disciplines. Students are guided on how the work learning experiences should be integrated and recorded. Assessment criteria and evaluation timeframes are documented.

PLACEMENT PROCESS: The  [institution] markets and promotes Cooperative Education to commerce, industry and government and secures accredited workstation placement opportunities. Learners are introduced to a range of Companies and have to apply and secure their own placements. [Institutions] may facilitate the application and interview process as required and students are selected by the companies after short-listing and interview processes.

VISITATION AND MONITORING: [Institution] staff visits students to ensure that their learning experience meets the expectations of all parties. The students, mentors and technikon staff meet to discuss progress. Logbook entries, presentations or any other agreed evidence portfolios or artefacts may be used to assess student progress. Visits to students at the workplace are planned timeously and by appointment. Frequency of visits will depend on geographical location, costs and related factors.

ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION: Interim and continuous assessment may occur throughout the experiential learning period. Assessment and evaluation performed by mentors, technikon staff or external examiners. Logbooks, assignment reports, projects, presentations or any other agreed evidence portfolios or artefacts may be used to assess and evaluate student learning. Marks, credits or records of OBE [outcomes based education] competence may be used to reflect student success and learning outcomes. Structured and recorded feedback by students and industry can serve as a quality assurance tool for review and improvement.

ADMINISTRATIVE SUPPORT INFRASTRUCTURE: Best practice presupposes dedicated administrative infrastructure and resources. This would include a database of participating companies, student's placement and work-record progress, as well as correspondence, communication and marketing material.

A cooperative education paradigm

Cooperative education is a holistic value-adding learning paradigm. The word paradigm originates from the Greek (paradeigma) and Latin (paradigma) meaning pattern, model or example. It is a basic set of beliefs that guide value-adding educational action, a patterning of thinking. Differently stated, a paradigm is an action of submitting to a view. The pedagogy of career-focussed and/or professional programmes is differentiated from academic programmes, by submitting to the paradigm of co-operative education. Experiential or work-integrated learning (WIL), as integrated part of the programme curriculum, is a key characteristic of the cooperative education paradigm. Formally cooperative education has been practised for more than a century; however, the principles could be traced back to the earliest days of humanity.

The International Handbook for Cooperative Education emphasises that the primary mission of cooperative education is to enhance student learning, i.e. the quality of teaching. Quality cooperative education practices entail three interrelated processes, illustrated below.

Co-operative education advocates the formal integration of work experience (or community service) into the theoretical curriculum. It is a structured educational strategy that progressively integrates academic study with learning through productive work experiences (or service learning), which is related to the programme goals, in the relevant occupational-field. The work-integrated learning is not an add-on to the curriculum, but an integral part of the educational process.

The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) publication ‘The National Qualifications Framework and Curriculum Development’ (Nkomo, 2000, p. 6) states "it is apparent that in the South African context particularly, curriculum is a broad concept including aspects such as standards setting, learning programme development and delivery and quality assurance of the delivery process". The cover page further conveys that “we need systemic change, not just curriculum or pedagogic change; we need a new driving vision for our system, not just a new paradigm for curriculum design and delivery”. This statement captures the equalising effect of the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) on the former binary higher education system in South Africa. Previously universities enjoyed academic freedom regarding the curriculum development of academic programmes offered, whereas technikons had a prescriptive system of occupational-field consultation and convenor technikons. For each qualification a convenor technikon had been appointed, which managed the curriculum review process. In this regard, the “fundamental challenge of the NQF to educators is … who is included in the decision-making process, and the relationship between different partners in the process i.e. the social milieu in which the curriculum unfolds” (Nkomo, 2000, pp. 7-8). The same document (p. 7) indicates that qualifications and standards are “developed through the participatory and representative structures and processes”. Universities now also need to produce evidence of the participants in the curriculum development process.

References

Sovilla E.S. & Varty, J.W. (2004). Cooperative Education in the USA, Past and Present: Some Lessons Learned. In Coll, R.K. & Eames, C. (Eds.). International Handbook for Cooperative Education. Boston: World Association For Cooperative Education.

Nkomo, M. (2000). The National Qualifications Framework and Curriculum Development. Pretoria: South African Qualifications Authority. Retrieved July 31, 2004 from http://www.saqa.org.za/structure/nqf/docs/curriculum_dev.pdf.

The Key Drivers of Work-integrated Learning

• Certain learning outcomes best attained through concrete work experiences.
• The occupational-field need to ratify/sanction these outcomes.
• Work-integrated learning does not just happen — must be directed/conducted/steered.
• Mentoring plays a key role in learning through work-experience.
• Formative and summative assessment are both important.
• Work-integrated learning as element of the programme curriculum is ultimately an academic responsibility.

The 'marketing concept' is NOT about exploitation

I presented a paper (Download sasce_2002_conference_paper_marketing_concept.doc) in April 2002 arguing that cooperative education should embrace the 'marketing concept':

The philosophy that the planning and coordination of all company activities around the primary goal of satisfying customer needs is the most effective means to attain a competitive advantage and achieve company objectives has become widely known as the marketing concept (Boyd and Walker, 1990:70

Some members of the audience voice concern about exploitation. The contrary is advocated, read again ... primary goal of satisfying needs ... of students, users of graduates, etc.

Boyd and Walker (1990:71) observed that “successful firms lose touch with their markets because managers are reluctant to tamper with strategies and marketing programmes that worked in the past”. The needs of customers change over time, and what was a competitive offering at one point may no longer be so. Inertia is thus dangerous and revision should be an on-going, frequent process, not just in business but especially within educational institutions.

Marketing-orientated management should permeate the entire organisation, regardless if is profit orientated or educational. It begins with the needs of the consumer and remains focussed throughout on satisfying these needs.

Cooperative education is not just about the once-off development of a new-product (educational programme), but a philosophy of continuous improvement of educational programmes to keep up with the changes in the worlds of application the programmes are aimed at. The concept 'continuous improvement' is defined by Bessant and Caffyn (1997) and Caffyn and Grantham (2000:235) as 'an organisation-wide process of focussed and sustained incremental innovation' achieved through 'a set of generic behaviours'. Cooperative education must manifest itself as a set of behaviours.

Marketing research is defined by the American Marketing Association as “the function which links the consumer, customer, and the public to the marketer through information — information used to identify and define marketing opportunities and problems; generate, refine and evaluate marketing actions; monitor marketing performance; and improve understanding of marketing as a process” (Boyd & Walker, 1990:278). Marketing research is an extension of the marketing concept. If educational institutions, and cooperative education practitioners in particular, wish to remain ‘linked’ to their customers, market research should be important. In the attached paper a six step market research process is presented.

For the references, see the paper.

Human Resources Development and the optimisation of potential

Business is concerned with profitability and productivity. Human Resources Management (HRM) deals with the optimisation of human resources (HR) in business. Human Resources Development (HRD) involves the optimisation of every individual, in terms of her/his potential. To achieve this a number of interrelated strategies are often used. The table below attempts to illustrate how some of these strategies relate to cooperative education.

A cooperative education paradigm has much in common with sound HRD. The focus of the co-op practitioner is determined in terms of her/his context. If educational-institution based, the individual is more educational-programme focused, student orientated and serving the appropriate occupational-field. If the “co-op practitioner” (HRD official) is commerce/industry based, the focus is organisational specific, staff-development orientated and liaison with relevant provider educational institution(s). If professional/vocational-association based, the focus is on that particular profession/vocation and the maintenance of standards.

Waterfall

People learn incredibly much from their daily living because often they pursue the things they are interested in. The things fit their goals, which is an important condition for learning. It is essential to set the stage.

Because of pursuing interests (or obligations) people try out things. Some attempts succeed, others fail, which result in questions. The questions lead to introspection, pondering, asking other, consulting sources (e.g. a Google search). The question in turn readies the mind for the answer. If answers are made available without the need to match a question, the answers often go wasted.

This three-step learning waterfall is illustrated below. In natural learning, people wonder about their experiences, they draw conclusions. This process bring about indices. Future learning is either allocated to an existing category or a new category indexed.

In research the central research question or hypothesis is the crux of a study. Once the question is clarified and delimited, then the research is focused. A colleague at Unisa, Paul Prinsloo, once shared the following story (Download a_story_about_the_power_of_questions.doc) about the power of questions 

The art of accomplishing the desired outcome from in vivo learning is in formulating the correct questions students need to find answers for.

Schank, R.C. & Cleary, C. 1995. Engines for education. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Learning from mistakes

Disproving a hypothesis is as valid a research outcome as proving a hypothesis, yet the latter is preferred?

People learn from mistakes and failures. People label experiences in terms of the outcomes. When humiliating, negative or frustrating there is a natural tendency to want to avoid a recurrence. There is a learning cycle at work, whereas when the outcome matches the expectation people just continue behaving the same way.

The unfortunate experiences serve as future behaviour guideline, or case-based reasoning, in order derive a more fortunate outcome. Reflecting on negative memories may serve as a powerful means of learning.

The saying "a mule only bumps his head once" has a lot of merit.

Monitoring of in vivo learning

Effective assessment design and development — Unit 3 of the Unisa online assessor training programme for lecturers, emphasises that assessment should be well planned and suggests that assessment guidelines should include the following:

• how the assessment should be conducted
• resources required
• conditions of assessment
• time-limits or deadlines
• how the assessment instruments should be used
• guidelines for mark allocation
• guidelines for using the assessment tool (rubric, checklist, etc)
• how results should be recorded and administered
• how feedback should be given
• time frames for returning marked assessments and feedback
• any other information that assessors need to know

A pilot project, of formalised monitoring of work-integrated learning, is currently been undertaken for four qualifications. The guidelines (Download Guidelines_to_Monitors_-_generic.pdf) for the monitors of work-integrated leaning includes:

• Introduction
• The imperative context Resources required
• How to conduct the monitoring
• Conditions of assessment
• Time constraints and time frame for returning the monitoring report
• How to use the progress assessment instrument
• Feedback to the student and her (his) workplace supervisor (mentor)
• Observations about developments in the field that might in future influence the work-integrated/in vivo learning of the qualification
• Contribute to improving Unisa’s monitoring process

The monitoring instrument (Download Generic_WIL_progress_assessment_instrument.pdf) includes:

• Name of the monitor
• Details of the student
• Details of the student's WIL host/site
• Synopsis of the student's comments about in vivo learning
• Record of progress (exposure areas, projects, portfolio of evidence elements and practica certificates)
• Details of mentor/workplace supervisor
• Summaries of various parts of the formative assessment session
• Monitor's reflection on the session

The thinking behind the design of the instrument is (a) data collection - 1st six bullets above, followed by (b) thoughtful recording, which prepares the monitor for reflexivity (see other post in this regard). The idea is to use the latter for action research purposes.

Modelling, coaching, scaffolding & fading

According to Billett (1994:11) the goal of apprenticeships, as a situated-learning methodology, is to assist learners to acquire and integrate the knowledge and attributes for skilled vocational practice. Billett further states that apprenticeship stresses an interplay between observation, scaffolding and increased independence of learners. As instruction method, apprenticeships ought to involve four phases:

Modelling, according to Billett (1994:11) requires an expert to execute a task so that the learner(s) can observe and build a conceptual model of the process involved in accomplishing the task successfully. However, the expert must also verbalise his or her thinking (the cognitive/internal procedures deployed). Modelling enables the learner to visualise the task execution. The implications for employers, other than the time to sensitise experts to reveal their cognitive processes, are largely beneficial, in that tasks are done according to specifications.

Coaching may result in a decrease in production, since it requires experts to observe and monitor the learners carrying out the tasks. In addition to feedback, experts may provide hints, clues and the tricks of the trade. Repeated demonstrations may also be required (Billett, 1994:11-12), which may consume even more time. However, Dougherty & Tan (1997:32) believe that training costs tend to be systematically overestimated, because the cost of a trainer hour is estimated by using the trainer’s wage rate. However, the real costs may be much less, because the trainer often fits training sessions into periods when he or she would otherwise have been idle.

Scaffolding refers to support given from a greater distance (Billett, 1994:12). Ideally, scaffolding implies an accurate diagnosis of the learner’s skill level and the entrusting of parts of or complete tasks that the learner should be able to complete. Additional suggestions may be offered or help required from the expert. It is further suggested that scaffolding should involve joint problem solving. Employers should start regaining lost production time as learners start to master the tasks and achieve output. Dougherty & Tan (1997:33) claim that several studies have found that training costs are recouped even if the trained worker stayed on for only a short while after mastery.

Fading is the gradual removal of support until learners are able to conduct tasks autonomously (Billett, 1994:12).

(This is an extract form a paper presented January 1998 - Download AICJAN98-Artisans.DOC )

Learning is not necessary derived from placements in work settings

Freeland, a university executive, Marini, a company executive, and Weighart, a co-operative education practitioner (1998, pp. 17, 20-24 & 26), and various others mentioned several factors that emphasise the integration of tuition and learning from work, community service or other experiences in student-centred, practice-orientated co-operative education:

• Hamilton and Hamilton (1997a, p. 676; 1997b, p. 682) asserted that to merely place people in work settings (hoping they will learn) does not guarantee that learning will take place. Students are not passive recipients, but co-participants (Greene, 1998, p. 411). In this regard Petherbridge (1996, p. 249) remarked that going on work experience is mistaken for a complete learning activity, which it is most certainly not.
• The creation of a learning culture that encourages synergy between workplace (experiential learning) and the academic component is important — both employers and education providers must make significant contributions (Dar-chin, 1998, p. 83; Bisschoff, 1997, p. 54). Pretorius (1996, p. 125) asserted that nothing may be done in isolation, co-operation and liaison became essential.
• The experiential learning curriculum or syllabus (part of course credits) and the specified learning objectives or the outcomes sequenced in such a way to progressive deepen the understanding of students — preferably real projects/assignments with real life implications (Apostolides & Looye, 1997, p. 18; Hamilton & Hamilton, 1997b, p. 683; Bisschoff, 1997, p. 54).
• The process of [a] preparation (planning and pre-placement briefing or training), [b] experience itself and [c] facilitation of reflection (not superficial debriefing) to optimise the learning — the integration occurs in the student's mind, but it should not be assumed that the student will necessary piece it together. Schaafsma (1996, p. 92) saw it as a spiral process. Petherbridge (1996, p. 243) urged that debriefing is central to the success of experience-based learning — not interviewing, but enabling students to make sense and optimise their learning through reflecting. Debriefing is a vital stage in the integration of work experience into the curriculum. It is the beginning of the learning not the end thereof.
• If paid experiential learning is not available a community service or a not-for-profit work station presents not only an excellent alternative, but also provide good citizenship education in an environment of declining government resources (Deruosi & Sherwood, 1997, pp. 46-47, 49 & 53; Hamilton & Hamilton, 1997a, p. 678).

References

Apostolides, V. & Looye, J.W. (1997). Student assessment of the co-op experience and optimum integration of classroom learning with professional practice. Journal of Cooperative Education, XXXII(3), 16-30.

Bisschoff, T. (1997). The role of co-operative education in the relationship between education and the economy. South African Journal of Education, 17(2), 53-55.

Dar-chin, R. (1998). Transformation and reform of vocational education and training in Taiwan, Republic of China. In I. Finlay, S. Niven & S. Young, S. (Eds.), Changing vocational education and training. (pp. 70-85). London: Routledge

Deruosi, P. & Sherwood, C.S. (1997). Community service scholarships: combining cooperative education with service learning. Journal of Cooperative Education, XXXIII(1), 46-54.

Finn, K.L. (1997). The spaces between: towards a new paradigm for cooperative education. Journal of Cooperative Education, XXXII(2), 36-45.

Freeland, R.M., Marini, R.C. & Weighart, S. (1998). Moving partnerships between co-op institutions and co-op employers into the next century. Journal of Cooperative Education, XXXIII(2), 17-27.

Greene, D. (1998). Reciprocity in two conditions of service-learning. Educational Gerontology, 24(5), 411-425.

Hamilton, S.F. & Hamilton, M.A. (1997b). When is work a learning experience? Phi Delta Kappan, 78(9), 682-690.

Petherbridge, J. (1996). Debriefing work experience: a reflection on reflection? British Journal of Guidance and Councelling, 24(2), 243-257.

Pretorius, S.G. (1996). Business and industry involvement in education. In E.I. Dekker & E.M. Lemmer (Eds.). Critical issues in modern education (pp. 123-149). Johannesburg: Heinemann

Schaafsma, H. (1996). Reflections of a visiting co-op practitioner a view of co-op from down under. Journal of Cooperative Education, XXXI(2), 83-100