Learning in vivo

Monitoring of work‐integrated learning at a distance HE institution

Abstract: (http://apjce.org/volume_10/apjce_10_2_75_98.pdf)

The objective of this paper is to share the learning derived from an action research pilot project on the monitoring of work-integrated learning. The South African higher education imperatives are outlined and perspectives on both defined competencies and/or outcomes of assessment are reviewed, as well as the more “artistic” ability derived from unexpected experiences and problem‐centered/based learning. Views on developing reflective ability are presented. The research method of entails an outline of the preparation phase, an exposition of the monitoring guidelines and instrument, as well as an explanation of action research. The launch, progression and review phases are then outlined. The findings comprise a synopsis of the qualitative data derived from the monitoring reports submitted, a summary of a focus group discussion held with regional learning facilitation staff, and the reflective perspectives of the central coordinating office staff. The article is concluded with a discussion of key lessons taken  from the experience and procedural proposals (Asia‐Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 10(2), 75-98).

Academic staff need direct exposure to the field they are teaching for

Guess what Jones (1999), Stern & Rahn (1995) and I had in common in the late nineties.

Visit my blog post INC-CEL-FAR (what?) at http://psychsoma.co.za/learning_in_vivo/2008/08/inc-cel-far-wha.html

I based my mnemonic on the then South African technikons education paradigm espoused by the Certification Council for Technikon Education (SERTEC), a former statutory body for quality insurance of the former technikons. The mnemonic spelled the essentials: IN (Industry Needs) + CC (Continuous Consultation) + EL (Experiential Learning - as it was known then) + FA (Faculty Abreast) + R (Reciprocity) = Cooperative Education. SERTEC suggested regular and at times prolonged exposure of academic staff to the realities of the 'world of work' they are treaching for.

Jones (1999) reported that the East Mississippi Community College is sending its teachers back to 'school' by placing them in internships, because they want teachers to see what is needed in the classroom. Stern and Rahn (1995) offered some recommendations with regard to the work-based learning:

• "Most academic teachers will need some direct exposure - possibly in summer internships - to the industry in which their students are working".
• Academics need to work together with employers to develop integrated curriculums.

References:

Jones, B. 1999. Getting back into the 'real world'. Community College Week, 12(8), 22-24.

Stern, D. & Rahn, M. 1995. Preparing students for the world of work: how health career academics provide work-based learning. Educational Leadership, May 1995, 37-40.

Competing interests not a concern, failing to declare them is

My DPhil supervisor, Dr WIllem Schurink, emphasised the importance of qualifying your scientific beliefs and research paradigm, especially when undertaking qualitative research. It is necessary, he argued, to make your philosophical-theoretical predispositions known. Walsh and Farrow (2006: 280) remark that "the main thing to remember is that competing interests in themselves do not necessarily constitute a problem - the problem lies in failing to declare them". They are particularly concerned that speakers in workplace sesions should declare their interests in what they are talking about and that researchers should make their interest, for example sponsorships, known. By not doing it, they run the risk of placing the credibility of their findings in question.

I wrote in my dissertation (p. 10): "Because of the qualitative methodological pluralism (Schurink, 2002b) which exists, a researcher must make her/his paradigm known, i.e. what constitutes her/his ontology (beliefs and perceptions about the nature of reality), her/his epistemology (where the researcher stands in relation to reality and in which way s/he will go about searching for truth) and her/his methodology (the methods and techniques that will be used to research reality; the how) to those with an interest in research (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998; Mason, 1996; Schurink, 2002b). Creswell (1994, 1998) as well as Denzin and Lincoln (2000b) add a fourth concept, i.e. the researcher’s axiology (i.e. ethics and values). This concept is particularly important since it differs from quantitative research endeavours, which claim to be value-free and unbiased, in that qualitative research is value-laden and biased."

References:

Groenewald, T. 2003. The contribution of co-operative education in the growing of talent. D Phil dissertation, Rand Afrikaans University (renamed University of Johannesburg after merger), Johannesburg. Available on the Internet at: http://ujdigispace.uj.ac.za:8080/dspace/handle/10210/106

Walsh, K. & Farrow, S. 2006. Competing interests and education in the workplace: time to grasp the nettle. Work Based Learning in Primary Care, 2006(4), 279-282.

Not everyone learns from experiential opportunities

Burton (2004: 193) puts forward a generally accepted definition of work-based learning, namely "learning which occurs at, for and from work". He continues to caution that not everyone learns from the experiential opportunities that they are exposed to and that attendance should not be mistaken or equated to learning. Some fail to learn and others may learn ineffectively or even may learn professional inappropriate matters.

Work-based learning must be contemporary and should occur within a structured context. Fraser (in Burton, 2004: 194) asserts that "activity is easy but conscious learning activity requires more effort". Fraser identified three features found in successful work-based learners, namely:

1. personal goals of learners are aligned by negotiation to the host organisation's goals (synergy)
2. their is constant engagement in real-time and critical review and feedback
3. they help other grow with them

Burton raise the question if work-based learning is so vigorously promoted that the "common or garden work based learning, which happen daily at work, would become undervalued and forgotten?" (p. 195) He conclude that we need to help people sustain their capacity to learn for, from and at work.

Burton, J. 2004. Work based learning in health and social care: innovations and applications, Middlesex University, 25 February 2004. Work Based Learning in Primary Care, 2004(2), 193-195.

Supervision, mentoring & coaching - 'ex cathedra'?

Literature on supervision, coaching and mentoring - John Launer (2006: 268) observes - "seems to exist on islands that are not in communication with each other". Some islands identified by professions-such as counselling and psychotherapy-other islands through their theoretical bent-such as psychoanalysis, systhemic family therapy, neurolinguistic programming (NLP) and client-centred approaches-and within most islands appear to be a particular 'ex cathedral' terminological preference (from an infallable authority) with rarely any attempt to contextualise definitions, frameworks or theoretical positions. "Readers are often left to work out for themselves exactly what the author's set of assumptions and agendas might be, and why" Launer remarks.

Yet, it appears from a literature review undertaken by Launer, that authors seem to address the same notions in one form or another. He reasons that perhaps it is not surprising, because of operating from individual professional bunkers. He remarks that few scholars can master the entire literature of their own field/s of interest, let alone other. However, many he states "are guilty of what Freud called "the narcissism of small differences' "(p. 269).

Launer, J. 2006. Reflective practice and clinical supervison: making sense of supervision, mentoring and coaching, Work Based Learning in Primary Care, 2006(4), 268-270.

Hierarchy of Learning Objectives

I mention in my blog Learner-managed Learning through Work (http://psychsoma.co.za/learning_in_vivo/2009/06/learnermanaged-learning-through-work-lmltw.html) the Hierarchy of Learning Outcomes (HLO) model.

I have not yet had access to Delahaye, B.L. 2005. Human Resource Development: Adult Learning and Knowledge Management, 2nd ed. Brisbane: John Wiley & Sons. but found valuable information via Google.

 

References:

http://www.auscampus.net/current-students/coursenotes/hrsubjects/mgt2_hrd/Lecture%208%20HRD%20design.ppt

http://uob-community.ballarat.edu.au/~coconnor/chapter9a.ppt

Every new challenge a learning opportunity

Cairns and Stephenson (in Young & Stephenson, 2007: 2) remark that "every time people engagte with new challenges they have opportunities for significant learning". However tutorial support is required to assist such learners to (1) articulate their acquired learning and plan ways of making current learning from work explicit, and to (2) obtain formal recognition for the new learning achievement.

Source:

Young, D.A. & Stephenson, J. 2007. The use of interactive learning environment to support learning through work leading to full university qualifications. AERA 2007.

Learning through work facilitated online

Sara Bosley and David Young (2006: 357) remark that "LtW is designed for people who are in work and wish to study part-time for a full HE award or credit towards one". Their paper considers the two-way, one-to-one online dialogue between student and tutor. They mention the following five-category method of content analysis:

1. Participative - this category consider the number of messages and exchange of statements
2. Social - these are unrelated statements to the formal content, but necessary greetings and include expressions of feelings
3. Interactive - these are chained messages with regard to the contributions of other
4. Cognitive - this category comprise those knowledge related online learning processes such as asking questions, drawing inferences and presenting hypotheses
5. Meta-cognitive - these are skills and knowledge pertaining to the learning process itself

Bosley and Young (356) further present four online tutor roles, namely:

• Pedagogical - this roles involves questioning and feedback or advice
• Managerial - such as the coordination of assignments
• Social - spicing with humour, offering empathy and meta-cognition interactions
• Technical - this role entail user assistance

In addition to these online tutor roles Bosley and Young mention the importance of motivation, the facilitating of group interaction and encouraging online participation. They observe that there are five stages through which an online group need to progress in order to achieve a high-level of learning:

1. central are access and motivation of learners
2. socialisation online
3. information
4. knowledge construction
5. development

Fostering of a culture of enquiry is a important aspect of e-teaching. Little and Whitelock (in Bosley & Young) mention technical, administrative, organisational, supportive, encouraging and community-building roles.

Bosley and Young also highlight two key components of LtW, namely individual leaning contracting (ILC) and work-based projects.

Source

Bosley, S. & Young, D. 2006. Online learning dialogues in learning through work. The Journal of Workplace Learning, 18(6), 355-366

Learner-managed learning through work (LMLTW)

Boud and Symes (in Choy) stated nearly a decade ago

When learning challenges are created from the exigencies of work there is often on pre-existing map that represents the territory of knowledge being explored.

Exigencies are pressing or urgent situations, requiring immediate effort or action; it is intrinsic to circumstances; cases that demand prompt remedy; a cricis; a contingency; a predicament; a fix; a pinch.

• When organisations sponsor the education of staff, it is done with growing human resource capacity in mind and therefore only expected to be aligned with business goals. Something the university for industry succeeded in. It requires a paradigm shift from traditional higher education. It requires a profound shift in the academic approach.
• Service learning in the true sense of the concept cannot be prescriptive. Community needs are examples of exigencies.
• The advocates of problem-based/orientated curriculum design, argue for focussing on what challenges graduates would face and developing ability to and knowhow where and how to find the information and/or solutions to address the exigencies they would face as graduate.

Choy (2009: 143) states that "the origins of knowledge and their boundaries in a work-based learning context are a lot more nebulous compared to fixed disciplines of academia", which is a matter (I believe) a lot of academia have not grasped yet.

The proponents of organisation-centred curriculums (OCC) founded and agreed on a framework around three principles (Choy 2009: 144):

1. partnerships between the educational institution and the organisation/s
2. learning activities are based on the needs of the organisation/s and the worker-learners, therefore linked to work projects
3. assessment and evaluation are in terms of both the agreed work outcomes and the academic learning objectives - both these inform the standards and measures

Choy reports on a case study in this regard and use terms such as a 'boutique curriculum' which is the result of interactions between disciplinary area, professional practice and workplace goals. Learners are obviously interested in immediate application and transfer of newly acquired knowledge and skills. Choy make reference to the Structure of Observed Learning Outcomes (SOLO) model and Hierarchy of Learning Outcomes (HLO) to accomplish constructive assessment. Another important notion mentioned is the compilation of resource folders (comprising tools and uasable materials acquired during the course of the learning process). Some real stimulating stuff here.

References:

Choy, S. 2009. Teaching and assessment for an organisation-centred curriculum. Journal of Workplace Learning, 21(2), 143-155.

Learning through work, flexibility and university for industry

Literature suggest a shift towards flexibility regarding learning outcomes of work-based learning. More than a decade ago (1998) the university for industry (UFI) materialised, focussing on learning through work (LTW), leading to university qualifications. Eight UK universities and colleges collaborate with LearningDirect in e-learning. Employers and/or individuals may negotiate work-based learner-managed projects and online learning that lead to qualifications.

Sources:

• http://www.ufi.com

• http://www.learningthroughwork.org/universities/

• Stephenson, J. & Saxton, J. 2005. Using the Internet to gain personalized degrees from learning through work: some experience from Ufi. Industry & Higher Education, 19(3), 249-258.

• Bosley, S. & Young, D. 2006. Online learning dialogues in learning through work. The Journal of Workplace Learning, 18(6), 355-366.

Five key dimensions of work-based learning

Clark and Whitelegg developed five key dimensions to classify various types of work-based learning (WBL). The dimentions aim to describe how the WBL type works, who benefits and by how much. The dimensions are:

1. Location - if it is institutional or employer driven/based
2. Employer involvement - the extent to which organisations get involved in the planning and delivering, the greater the involvement the more significant the impact on the curriculum
3. Intensity on contact - duration and nature of contact, form brief once-off to continuous - the more intense the more effective the WBL
4. Compulsory or optional - if WBL is a central part of the qualification and compulsory for all students or a specialist option of a few students - whereas the latter is easier to arrange the former signifies genuine importance
5. Range of skills - the number of outcomes the WBL aims to accomplish indicates the potential impact thereof

Source:

Clark, G. & Whitelegg, J. 1998. Maximising the benefits from work-based learning: the effectiveness of environmental audits. Journal of Geography in Higher Education 22(3), 325-334.

What is a community of practice?

In 1991, Jean Lave (an anthropolgist) and Etienne Wenger (a computer scientist) introduced the idea of communities of practice.

New entrants in a workplace engage on the peripheral (edge) and gradually their roles become more central. There is often tention between newcomers and the established workers. The latter share their knowledge and experiences, shape the identity of the newcomers, but are inevitably overtaken or replaced by the new entrants.

Wenger (in Jamieson) describe communities of practice (CoP) as a common occurance, which all people belong to. Some are at work, others in the community, some have names, some do not. In some instances we are core members, other times more towards the edges. Members are bound informmay by what they do collectively - there is a shared practice, that can be defined along three dimensions:

1. what the CoP is about - its purpose as understood by the members
2. how the CoP functions - the collective engagements that binds its members into a entity
3. the capabilities of the CoP - the collective body of knowledge, repertire of resources, routines, artifacts, vocabulary, etc. that its members developed or produced

CoPs move through developmental stages that are characterised by different kinds of activities and levels of interaction.

Source:

Jamieson, A. 2004. Communities of practice and a conversation with an e-learning provider. Work-based Learning in Primary Care, 2, 148-157

Typology of work-based/integrated learning roles

Wendy Rickard differentiates five distinct categories of work-based learning roles, a typology:

1. Shadow - where the student shadows a single or several staff members
2. Innovator - a student's own initiated project ideas supported
3. Volunteer - where the student experiences significant client or service-user contact
4. Assistant - the student participates fully and share work-load progressively more
5. Research (task) - a once-off venture where the output expected is predetermined

Rickard, W. 2002. Work-based learning in health: evaluating the experience of learners, community agencies and teachers. Teaching in Higher Education, Vol 7(1), 47-63.