Learning in vivo

Are computer games constructive tools to foster learning?

Konstantin Mitgutsch (2012: 572) shares “insights into the experience-based process of learning and its recursive motion, structures, and patterns”—“the recursive process of experiencing unknown situations and of restructuring former experiences”. He starts (p. 571) by asking the blog title question and by indicating it “reaches back to the roots of the institutionalization of education in general”. He continues to indicate that “ludologists, educators, psychologists, anthropologists, and philosophers” in the 18^th and 19^th centuries recognised and promoted the potential of playing. He adds that “players achieve an enormous amount of information through playing digital games”.

Digital games have been capturing academic interest since the early 1980s. Initially the dominant focus of research had been on risks and environmental effects. In contrast the focus of contemporary research shifted to the “positive and beneficial aspects of playing”—“A frequently applied term used to describe learning in games is digital game-based learning (DGBL)” (Mitgutsch, 2012: 572-3). He quotes the Federation of American Scientists (2006: 3) believes that “computer games are a constructive tool to foster learning”:

The success of complex video games demonstrates games can teach higher-order thinking skills such as strategic thinking, interpretative analysis, problem solving, plan formulation and execution, and adaptation to rapid change.

Although the PC-games industry develop and sell games that foster learning, it must be kept in mind that the focus is on profits and market preferences, rather than on an educational rationale. Mitgutsch (2012: 574-5) summarises literature that focus on reasons why computer games engage learners as well as several aspects that support the learning process.

Learning “is often reduced to an act of acquiring” while it is often overlooked “that every learning process starts with a particular experience of something”—people cannot necessary “choose to make a particular experience like” ordering from a catalogue; instead experience happens (Mitgutsch, 2012: 575). John Dewey in 1916 pointed out that learning from experience entails making backward and forward connections between what is done/tried and what is gained as result—it is not a linear act of acquiring; but rather “a circular process of suffering, doing, experimenting, transferring, and playing”. Games offer exploratory territories and therefore serve as powerful learning enablers.

Mitgutsch, K. 2012. Learning through play – a delicate matter: experience-based recursive learning in computer games, Chapter 36, pp. 571 - 584. [Retrieved 25 June 2012 from: http://www.springerlink.com/content/h2534141vvm55m32/fulltext.pdf] in J. Fromme & A. Unger (eds). 2012. Computer Games and New Media Cultures—A Handbook of Digital Games Studies. Dordrecht: Springer Science and Business Media. Retrieved 25 June 2012 from: http://www.springerlink.com/content/978-94-007-2776-2/#section=1083651&page=1

Rhizomatous propagation of Co-op & Work-integrated Ed support

Propagating involves the breeding of specimens by natural processes from the parent stock. Rhizomes are creeping plant rootstalks or rootstocks that send out shoots and roots from its nodes. The word rhizome originates from New Latin rhizoma, meaning a "mass of roots"; which stems from Ancient Greek rhizóō, meaning "cause to strike root"; and rhiza, meaning "a root".

Cooperative and Work-integrated Education qualifications/programmes are distinguished by two characteristics, namely:

• Credit bearing work-experience forms an important part/s of the curriculum that is aimed at producing work-ready graduates.
• The curriculum is designed in conjunction with, supported by, and retained relevant by representation from the occupational-field that the programme is intended for.

Good Cooperative and Work-integrated Education practice is characterised by:

• An appropriate advisory system ensuring the retained relevance of the programme through providing regular updating input and critique about the existing curriculum.
• Continuous propagating and cultivating activities to retain and expand a supportive occupational community which is vital for (a) providing real-life work experience opportunities; as well as (b) mentoring of students by workplace supervisors during period of experience; and (c) evaluative input about the competence acquisition of students for graduation purposes.

The metaphor (rhizomatous propagation) suggests:

• Starting of a new garden from good quality rhizomes (irises, cannas and asparagus) — curriculum design in close collaboration with the vocational community and/or professional/statutory body.
• Keep the programme flavour just right by cooking/brewing with good quality rhizomes (ginger, hops and turmeric) — frequently consult the community of practice.
• The underground rhizome is crucial to longevity — foragers, insects, fungus, and fires may attempt to damage the qualification (the above-ground portion of an aspen colony), but a supportive group of practitioners will keep the qualification healthy and protected against threats.
• Rhizomes send out internodes that form roots from the bottom of the nodes and new upward-growing shoots from the top of the nodes — the members of the programme’s advisory system are instrumental in expanding the network of supportive organisations.
• Similar to a rhizome, a stolon (e.g. strawberry plants) grow long internodes that generates new shoots at the end — active marketing interventions takes place to generate wider support.
• A rhizome (also stem tuber or enlarged stolon) serves as storage organ that is often high in starch (e.g. common potatoes) — enabling survival during winter or drought.
• The rhizomes of some species grow above ground, e.g. iris species lie at the soil surface; whereas other are underground, e.g. bamboo — some members of the community of practice render explicit support whereas the contributions of other are equivocal.
• Generally rhizomes form a single layer, but some form a multi-tiered mass — in some communities of practice a qualification may lead to a variety of career paths, whereas in other it is limited.

Work-integrated learning as method of structured distance learning

The South African Ministry of Higher Education and Training (MHET) published the draft Policy Framework for the Provision of Distance Higher Education in the Government Gazette on 29 May 2012.

Based on the MHET Policy’s glossary (p. 4) definition of distance education work-integrated learning (WIL) can be regarded as a method of structured distance learning:

... a set of teaching and learning strategies (or educational methods) that can be used to overcome spatial and/or temporal separation between educators and students. However, it is not a single mode of delivery. It is a collection of methods for the provision of structured learning. It avoids the need for students to discover the curriculum by attending classes frequently and for long periods. Rather, it aims to create a quality learning environment using an appropriate combination of different media, tutorial support, peer group discussion, and practical sessions (emphasis added).

This is emphasised on page 8 of the draft MHET Policy that states: "Distance education proceeds from the belief that learning can be nurtured without necessarily requiring teachers and learners to be in the same place at the same time, and that the resource based nature of distance education allows for the possibility to achieve economies of scale" (emphasis added).

Page 8 of the draft MHET Policy also points out that distance education 'requires substantial up-front investment in curriculum design and materials development, including attention to issues of structure, pacing and meaningful formative assessment, as well as considerable investment in decentralised student support' (emphasis added), which is also true about WIL. Page 12 of the draft MHET Policy continues to state: 'Online communication allows students and academics to remain separated by space and time (although some forms of communication assume people congregating at a common time), but to sustain an ongoing dialogue. Online asynchronous discussion forums, for example, reflect an instance where the spatial separation between educator and learners is removed by the ‘virtual’ space of the Internet, but where there remains temporal separation' (emphasis added). The facilitation of reflection among students during and after stints of WIL has been emphasised.

Item 4.2.2 (h), pp. 22-23 of the draft MHET Policy giving the example of teacher education should enjoy appropriate attention:

Teacher education is a good example here: it remains in the lowest CESM funding category even though new accreditation requirements require investment in a robust teaching practice placement, mentoring and supervision system. While teaching practice has been funded as a full course at funding level 1, the issue now is to define it as an experiential learning component through the funding review process and thus fund it accordingly. Similar concerns arise regarding any programmes of study that require substantive work-integrated-learning and/or practical components and/or substantial online engagement between teachers and students in synchronous and asynchronous fora. Such requirements militate against the potential of achieving economies of scale.

It needs to be pointed out that the statement above does not mention the role of the teaching community of practice, which is a very important oversight. The collaborative notion in Cooperative and Work-integrated Education is not mentioned in the draft policy. The establishment of a supportive community of practice is crucial with regard to curriculum design, especially if work-integrated learning is decided upon as most appropriate method.

Practitioners, serving as mentors for learners, are the third key players in programmes that include work-integrated learning as preferred method. The up-front investment in for quality work-integrated learning includes appropriate materials development that would structure and pace learning as well as empower workplace mentors to offer meaningful formative assessment. This is where the investment of decentralised student support of quality work-integrated learning should focus. (Page 8 of the draft MHET Policy)

Although improvement of the quality of distance education is mentioned in section 4.3 (p. 23); concern about quality and of “inadequate practical work or exposure to work integrated learning” is highlighted.

Republic of South Africa. 2012. Department of Higher Education and Training. Draft Policy Framework for the Provision of Distance Higher Education in South African Universities. Retrieved online from: http://www.dhet.gov.za/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=ZgZKPb1fM38%3D&tabid=36

Effective user interface for simulated learning

For at least three decades the design principles of user interface has a presence in computer science literature. During the last decade computer systems became increasingly more interactive and code for interface increased accordingly. Interactive user interface developments and graphic user interfaces (GUI) in particular do provide simpler ways for humans to communicate with PCs. Although GUI requires complex programming, several software tools emerged that assist with the implementation of GUI, such as NeXT Interface Builder; WindowsMAKER; TelePICTIVE; and TelePICTIRE (Sidhu, 2010: 36).

Sidhu (2010: 36-38) suggests the following design guidelines for better user interface:

• Simple, clear and standardised screen layout with liberal use of blank space. Functional aspects such as title, help text and buttons should be consistent throughout; with distinctive design that emphasise critical information. Textual information should be easily legible, by using appropriate fonts, typestyles and typesets. The resolution of graphics should eb good quality.
• Make use of easily navigatable multi-windows and menus to enable users to bring relevant windows to the front.
• Make use of menus that indicate the selected option and visited items. Provide keyboard shortcuts (accelerators) and indicators of drastic action if executed, e.g. exiting or quiting without having saved. Use hierarchical (sub) menus with clear indicators.
• Provide selection lists (pop-ups) when hovering with mouse.
• Make use of realistics icons to give visual clues to users.
• Make use of feedback indicators, e.g. progress or time/percentage remaining; and/or graphic indicators, such as bars.
• Provide online help that is context sensitive.
• Error messages should be constructive and offer remedy suggestions.
• Use colour to enhance usefulness, e.g. similar functional background colours; contrast to focus users; and bright colours for caution.
• Mouse input (and other input devices) should be consistent with contemporary software.

Sidhu, M.S. 2010. Technology-assisted problem solving for engineering education: interactive multimedia applications. Hershey: Engineering Science Reference.

User-computer interface for simulations

Interface design concerns the practical information a multimedia-author needs in order to produce usable and well-designed interfaces, states Sidhu (2010: 30). In addition to the outcomes a learning package aims to achieve through, for example, tasks; the developing team need to consider several interacting concerns. Although several user interface standards exists—for example ISO, CEC/CENELEC and BSI—unfortunately some developers do not make use of a common standard. Human Computer Interaction (HCI) is a discipline “concerned with the design, evaluation and implementation of interactive computing systems for human” usage and “user interface is an interface developed to enable HCI”—or differently stated “a communication channel between the user and the functional elements of the computer” (Sidhu, 2010: 31) illustrated by Plass (1998, in Sidhu) as follow:

The illustration comprises two functions. At the bottom right, the user input is allocated (centre) to the application (left). At the top left, the functionality flows (centre) to the user (right). In the case of text-based HCIs only written verbal communication is used, whereas with visual HCIs manipulation of visual objects, verbal and auditory interaction is involved.

Sidhu, M.S. 2010. Technology-assisted problem solving for engineering education: interactive multimedia applications. Hershey: Engineering Science Reference.