Knud Illeris (2016: 201), inducted in 2006 to the ‘International Adult and Continuing Education Hall of Fame’ (2018) in the fields of continuing education and adult learning, remarks that ‘workplace learning’ and work-based learning’ taking place directly in the workplace “became popular slogans in the context of vocationally orientated education”. He indicates the paradoxical nature of this popularity in the light of historical trend that the bulk of curriculums were transferred from workplaces to formalised education. Illeris (2016: 202) points out “this has been absolutely clear: more and more schooling and less and less educational training at the workplaces”. Enterprises furthermore want education to be financed by the state. Illeris instead emphasise the need for lifelong learning during work life, with the view of continuously ‘upgrading’ the base qualifications of employees.
Many aspects evolved since the beginning of the twentieth century, when cooperative education systems and sandwich education programmes were introduced in Northern America and Europe respectively, and subsequently spread internationally. Among the many changes, there had been an explosion of e-learning, say Arthur and Raine (2016), who indicates two main reasons. First is technological advances associated with the Internet that resulted in substantial affordable educational resources, networked learning, new ways in which knowledge is imparted, etc. The second reason is the importance of knowledge for economic growth. “At a time of budget constraints …” say Arthur and Raine (2016: 144) “… efficiency drives and a continuous emphasis on optimising value-for-money, the contemporary and emerging technologies offer unique opportunities for the education sector.” The emphasis on e-learning and diminishing opportunities for workplace learning as part of the curriculum, prompt the pursuance of simulations and educational alternatives to real-life experience, in order for graduates to gain competence.
Dadze-Arthur and Raine (2016: 146) explain that “e-learning, also referred to as distance learning or online education, can be understood as learning that involves students doing all their classroom activities outside the traditional classroom, at a distance from their school or college, and supported by technology-based tools”. Unisa (2018) states that the university “is the largest open distance learning institution in Africa and the longest standing dedicated distance education university in the world”. It therefor makes sense that Unisa would favour simulations and other electronic facilitated experiential learning to actual placements of students.
Beard, Wilson and McCarter (2007: 4) remark that a limited number of underpinning theories exist with regard to e-learning, which is often “technology-led rather than theory-led”. They coined the expression E2-learning with regard to the fusion between experiential learning and e-learning. According to Baasanjav (2013: 576) the term “refers to the possibility of bringing together everyday experience and communication technologies”. Dadze-Arthur and Raine (2016: 146) simply uses experiential-electronic learning (EE-Learning), qualified as the notion of ‘experiential learning in a distance-learning environment’, which is generally to be understood as a combination of experiential learning and e-learning with the goal to create a strong, interactive learning community.
Bates (2014) responded to a colleague stating that experiential learning cannot be done online that “experiential learning is [indeed] like most design models: it is independent of the mode of delivery. What matters is how well it is done.” Bates points out that there is a range of teaching design models that embed real world contexts into learning, namely problem-based learning, case-based learning, project-based learning, inquiry-based learning, cooperative (work- or community-based) learning, and apprenticeships.
David Kolb’s cyclical theory (1984) is deemed synonymous with experiential learning. He synthesised three earlier models of learning through direct experience, namely the models of Dewey (1938), Lewin (1946) and Piaget (1972). Kolb argues that concrete real-life experiences (CE) provide a reference point for learning. Specific meanings and emotional stimuli in turn serve as material to consider and examine from a variety of perspectives, which entail reflective observation (RO). This in turn result in the looking for patterns, building concepts, testing of theories, and drawing logical conclusions about future implications, a process of abstract conceptualization (AC). People complete the cycle by drawing upon previous insights to solve problems and make decisions, the stage of active experimentation (AE). Kolb (1984) asserts that for learning to be effective in acquiring knowledge or skill, people need to engage fully in four successive stages. Dunlap, Dobrovolny and Young (2008) emphasise that Kolb’s cycle presents itself as scaffold in the design of E2-learning. As result of the transactional distance involved in e-learning, students easily experience real-world projects as frustrating, ineffective, and demoralizing. Kolb's model is therefore promoted as design-mould to provide structure and sequence for students.
In 2011, the South African Council on Higher Education (CHE) published ‘Work-Integrated Learning: Good Practice Guide’ (CHE, 2011), which differentiates several work-integrated learning (WIL) curricular modalities, as alternatives to actual workplace (WPL) or work-based learning (WBL) namely:
- Work-directed theoretical learning (WDTL), which entails theoretical forms of knowledge are introduced and sequenced in ways that meet both academic criteria and are applicable and relevant to the career-specific components
- Problem-based learning (PBL), a pedagogic approach that involves students learning through the structured exploration of a practice-based or research problem
- Project-based learning (PJBL), which brings together intellectual inquiry, real world problems and student engagement in relevant and meaningful work
34 (p. 17) of the South African ‘Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework’ (HEQSF, 2014) states that “In the HEQSF, WIL may take various forms including simulated learning [SWE], work-directed theoretical learning [WBTL], problem-based learning [PBL], project-based learning [PJBL] and workplace-based learning [WPL]”. §34 further states that “The selection of appropriate forms of work-integrated learning depends on the nature and purpose of the qualification type programme objectives and outcomes, the NQF level at which the WIL component is pegged, institutional capacity to provide WIL opportunities, and the structures and systems that are in place within professional settings and sites of practice to support student learning.” (acronyms added).
References:
Baasanjav, U. (2013). Incorporating the experiential learning cycle into online classes. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 9(4), 575—589.
Bates, T. (2014). Can you do experiential learning online? Assessing design models for experiential learning Accessible from https://www.tonybates.ca/2014/12/01/can-you-do-experiential-learning-online-assessing-design-models-for-experiential-learning/
Beard, C.; Wilson, J.P. & McCarter, R. (2007). Towards a Theory of e-Learning: Experiential e-Learning. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, 6(2), 3-15. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/95b4/bf51ed82edf9bb529574d65df250fb595df7.pdf
Council on Higher Education (2011). Work-Integrated Learning: Good Practice Guide. HE Monitor No. 12, August 2011. Pretoria: IeCommunications. Electronically accessible from http://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/Higher_Education_Monitor_12.pdf
Dadze-Arthur, A. & Raine, J.W. (2016). Experiential Learning and Teaching at a Distance: How Distinctive an Experience? In Developing Public Managers for a Changing World. Published online: 19 Dec 2016; 141-159. Permanent link to this document: https://doi.org/10.1108/S2045-794420160000005008
Dunlap, J; Dobrovolny, J; and Young, D (2008) Preparing e-Learning Designers Using Kolb's Model of Experiential Learning, Innovate: Journal of Online Education: Vol. 4: Iss. 4, Article 3. Available at: http://nsuworks.nova.edu/innovate/vol4/iss4/3
Illeris, K. (2016). Working and learning, chapter 18, 201-216. In Learning, Development and Education, from learning theory to education and practice—the selected works of Knud Illeris. New York: Routledge.
International Adult and Continuing Education Hall of Fame. (2018). About the Hall of Fame (https://www.halloffame.outreach.ou.edu/about.html), 2006 Hall of Fame Inductees (https://www.halloffame.outreach.ou.edu/by_year/HOF_2006.html), and Knud Illeris (https://www.halloffame.outreach.ou.edu/2006/illeris.html).
South African Government (2014). Department of Higher Education and Training, Government Notice No 819. Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework. Government Gazette No. 38116, 17 October 2014. Electronically accessible from http://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/38116_gon819.pdf and/or http://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/CHE%20-%20Higher%20Education%20Qualification%20Framework%20-%20EDITED%20171013.pdf