Learning in vivo

Problem-based learning through community engagement

“Service learning and problem-based learning (PBL) are distinct”, yet related and potentially synergistic paradigms say McDonald and Ogden-Barnes (2013: 281) and indicate that:

• The essence of problem-based learning (PBL), as form of work-integrated learning (WIL) entail exposure of students to ‘real world’ or simulated organisational or operational challenges, and the development of solutions thereto
• Service learning is deemed valuable in developing the social conscious of students, and is actively promoted as an educational strategy for developing stronger links between the educational institution and its community

PBL resorts within the constructivist paradigm, and is aimed at developing the abilities of students “to think, collaborate, and synthesise in the pursuit of solutions, applying personal, interpersonal, professional and academic learning and experiences to a ‘real world’ issue” (McDonald and Ogden-Barnes, 2013: 281). However, there is a distinct difference PBL and problem-solving learning, in that the latter is concentrated “on eliciting answers to questions posed specifically in relation to the discipline curriculum” they indicate. Furthermore, PBL “is characterized by flexibility and diversity in the sense that it can be implemented in a variety of ways in and across different subjects and disciplines in diverse contexts” they point out. The ultimate success of PBL as “learning strategy is the identification, design and communication of the problem itself, a factor which has been revealed to be complex and multi-dimensional” (p. 282).

Service learning, as form of experiential learning, which entail students and community members together attending to community issues of concern. These issues provide context for academically rigorous assignments, connecting community experience with specific teaching and learning goals. Service learning (SL) is labelled by many alternatives, such as “community-engagement, community-pedagogy, community-knowledge exchange and community-based learning” (McDonald and Ogden-Barnes, 2013: 283). The essence of SL involves students volunteering and applying time, intellect, skills and abilities, as part of their curriculum, towards community advancement. SL may be subject or discipline specific or integrate multiple disciplines in pursuing an educational institution’s community engagement vision and goals. The implementation of effective SL or community engagement (CE) initiatives entail significant resource implications, and may result in real-world versus academic-world contradictions, caution McDonald and Ogden-Barnes (2013: 283).

McDonald and Ogden-Barnes (2013: 290) present the following recommendations with regard to the PBL-SL/CE interface:

• Consider [the] resource implications early and dedicate a working group to design, market and project manage the event
• Position the event against the institution’s community engagement agenda to demonstrate relevance and build internal rapport
• Secure senior management ownership/buy in
• Create a distinct brand, theme and set of promotional resources for the event that is relevant and appealing to both students and stakeholders
• Discuss and manage stakeholder expectations in relation to the problem or challenge[s] identified
• Encourage inter-disciplinary participation via inter-school promotion
• Actively communicate the benefits of participation to all parties: students, faculty, stakeholders
• Provide in situ support to help overcome any learning hurdles
• Ensure strong dialogue between students and organizations over the duration of the event to ensure that the team’s thinking and ideas remains on track

McDonald, S. & Ogden-Barnes, S. (2013). Problem-based service learning with a heart: Organizational and student expectations and experiences in a postgraduate not-for-profit workshop event. Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 14(4), 281-293. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/APJCE_14_4_281_293.pdf

An Indigenous community-based work-integrated learning model

Access to community-based learning for Indigenous students is presented by Cameron and Rexe (2022) as both feasible and successful. They portray a Canadian case study, derived from an Indigenous storytelling approach of witnessing, and introduce an Indigenous work-integrated learning conceptual model. The model is based on a perspective of the medicine wheel, with the student at the centre, surrounded by the community, training providers, funders, and industry as four quadrants. The model facilitates learning that is grounded in culture and Indigenous ways of knowing, doing, and being. The model is based on the medicine wheel because of one of the author’s sense making of the components of success.

The medicine wheel is essentially a circular symbol, broken into four quadrants of different colours, most often yellow, red, black, and white, explain Tribal Trade (n.d.). Cameron and Rexe (2022) point out that there are a variety and diversity of medicine wheel teachings and representations inspired by the stories, values, and beliefs of different nations. As metaphor, the medicine wheel emphasizes interconnectedness and interrelatedness of all things. Tribal Trade (n.d.). Indicate that various attributes assigned to the four quadrants and may, for example, include the four directions, the four states of being, the four sacred medicines, the four seasons, the four elements, the four stages of life.

Indigenous community-based work-integrated learning (WIL) model, figure 1 below, depicts how the student in the focal point, thus merging Western and Indigenous ways of being and doing. A key ingredient of the Canadian Indigenous community and economic development “is fostering economic self-sufficiency and socio-economic equality” and “inclusive of Indigenous culture and community” (p. 204). A priority is the increased access to post-secondary education and training in skilled trades. Indigenous peoples were as a result of colonization subjected to systemic barriers of access to various forms of post-secondary education, participation therein and attainment. Financial constraints and geographic non-proximity exacerbate the situation. Increased attention to culturally responsive teaching practices, inclusion of Indigenous knowledges, the use of Indigenous pedagogy, and land- or community-based education are furthermore of significance. Community-based opportunities do reduce barriers, meet the needs of Indigenous learners, and provide access at rural and remote areas, enabling individuals to learn within their community. It is said that quality community-based training is made feasible through intentional community engagement. Of significant importance is the development of relationships that are reciprocal, reflect mutual respect, where authority is shared, and goals, objectives and outcomes co-created (p. 205).

A significant finding conveyed by Cameron and Rexe (2022: 205-6) is that both employers and training providers that “provide both ‘pastoral’ (meaning guidance, social, and counseling support) and academic support” are more likely to accomplish increased completion rates. The use of ethnographic methods, Lave and Wenger’s legitimate peripheral participation, as well as Billett’s situated learning are further, among others, mentioned.

The authors conclude that the medicine wheel can be used as a teaching tool in programme design and for supporting student success. It is believed that the use would result in strong high-quality community-based partnerships. Reading of the source article is strongly recommended.

Cameron, M. & Rexe, D. (2022). Community-based access to apprenticeship: An Indigenous work-integrated learning model. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 23(2), 203-218. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_23_2_203_218.pdf.

Tribal Trade. (n.d.) The indigenous medicine wheel, native medicine wheel explained. Electronically accessible from https://us.tribaltradeco.com/blogs/medicine-wheel/medicine-wheel-teachings-native-medicine-wheel-system-explained

What is the medicine wheel? (2020). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S7nb4rJ_N14

Recommendations towards guiding the development of strategic Indigenous WIL initiatives

Nielsen, Livernoche and Ramji (2022) analysed work-integrated learning (WIL) literature specific to Indigenous students. They found significant disparities in access, retention, and success pertaining WIL programmes, as well as barriers and unrealised opportunities to expand and transform WIL practices. The ‘UVic Co-op and Career Services’[1], of the University of Victoria, in Canada, developed[2] in partnership with institutions from across British Columbia, and with support of the ‘Association for Co-operative Education and Work-Integrated Learning’[3] (ACE-WIL) BC/Yukon, publicly-accessible, through the Indigenous WIL Resource Hub[4] (IRH), resources towards strategic Indigenous WIL initiatives.

Nielsen et al. (2022: 147-150) could not derive from the international body of scholarly knowledge both clear and actionable directives, or strategic approaches towards creating more indigenously inclusive participative, culturally relevant, equitable, and accessible WIL programmes. However, the literature provided a better understanding of the process through which practitioners might support Indigenous student success. They offer ten recommendations to this end:

1. Be continuously guided by, and accountable to, Indigenous participants, collaborators, and advisors

The Latin slogan ‘Nihil de nobis, sine nobis’, meaning ‘nothing about us without us’ conveys the notion that strategies and policies should not be decided without the full and direct reciprocal and continuous participation of the members of the group/s that might be affected or that are involved. Direction should be taken from Indigenous leaders, accountability exercised and where appropriate compensation provided. The aim to build together supportive and respectful relationships.

2. Invest in Indigenous community-building on campuses and within work-integrated learning networks

Institutional, as well as Indigenous leadership support, for community initiatives is emphasised. The creation of “spaces where Indigenous WIL students feel welcome and respected in bringing their whole selves to environments in higher education and work” (Nielsen et al. 2022: 148) is important.

3. Collaborate with Indigenous communities and students to develop new work-integrated learning placements

Placement coordinators must engage, ask rather than making assumptions, and not impose institutional goals on Indigenous communities.

4. Build flexibility into work-integrated learning programmes and placements

It is very important to take into consideration the potential social and financial barriers with regard to Indigenous and rural student participation. Flexibility is emphasised in providing for part-time and remotely accessible placements. Personalisation of WIL by allowing students to present own learning plans and goals, based on own definitions of success, is encouraged.

5. Increase financial support for indigenous work-integrated learning students

Several financial barriers are frequently experienced by Indigenous students. One such is having to relocate for WIL opportunities and working for less or no pay. Compensation and financial support is deemed necessary. The terms of funding packages at times end before completion of the prerequisite WIL of qualifications, yet living expenses continue.

6. Create awareness of work-integrated learning programs and opportunities

Publishing of success stories and distribution of information about Indigenous WIL opportunities can be done through posters, video interviews, blogs, social media, pamphlets, etc.

7. Expand indigenous counselling and advising services

Mentoring and knowledgeable, sensitive academic advisors are strongly encouraged.

8. Work with hiring partners in decolonizing and indigenizing practices

WIL coordinators should sensitise employers and placement partners to create equitable workplaces that would recognise the diverse experiences and contributions of Indigenous students and accommodating their needs. This can be done by creating resources, such as short informational videos and pamphlets, and through workshops addressing what decolonized and Indigenised hiring and workplace practices entail. Employers may further be encouraged to provide flexibility by accommodating the needs of remotely located students, as well as those with dependents and care obligations.

9. Respond to the needs and concerns of indigenous students navigating work-integrated learning hiring processes

Nielsen et al. (2022: 149) encourage the recognition of “the knowledge and agency of” Indigenous students by taking “active steps to keep lines of communication open with students so to facilitate relationship-building and so to remain responsive to changing student concerns”.

10. Provide specialized training for work-integrated learning staff and human resources professionals

Gatekeepers to WIL programmes and placements, such as WIL coordinators and human resources professionals, should challenge discriminatory procedures and systems; as well as offer anti-racism, unconscious bias, cultural intelligence, and Indigenous cultural sensitivity training.

The recommendations above informed and guided the creation of the Indigenous WIL Resource Hub (IRH). Good practice “must be informed and carried out through long-term and close partnerships with local communities and stakeholders” say Nielsen et al. (2022: 147). They emphasise that none of the recommendations must be perceived as short-term projects, nor regarded as free standing. On the contrary, a holistic approach is required, “as well as sustainable, long-term timelines, commitments, and partnerships” say Nielsen et al. (2022: 150).

Nielsen, J., Livernoche, R. & Ramji, K. (2022). The Indigenous Work-integrated Learning Resource Hub: A needs-based approach to addressing barriers and opportunities for Indigenous students. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 23(2), 139-152. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_23_2_139_152.pdf

[1] https://www.uvic.ca/coop/contact-us/co-op-and-career-services/index.php

[2] https://www.uvic.ca/coop/contact-us/co-op-and-career-services/announcements/2022-07-indigenous-resource-hub.php

[3] https://acewilbc.ca/

[4] https://acewilbc.ca/projects/indigenous-wil-resource-hub/

A community is required for workplace-based learning (‘it takes a community to offer’)

‘It Takes a Village’ by Jane Cowen-Fletcher (1994) is a colourfully illustrated story that portrays a proverb attributed to West Africa, namely ‘it takes a village to raise a child’.

Yemi's mother asks her to care for her younger brother and the girl is delighted at the prospect of taking on a grown-up task. The three of them set out to the village market [in Benin, West Africa], where Mama will sell mangoes. Yemi soon loses Kokou, but instead of the terrible things she imagines happening to him, the toddler is lovingly cared for by all of the adults he meets-he is fed, given something to drink, played with, and allowed to nap. Yemi discovers that caring neighbours have been watching them both all along.

The proverb ‘it takes a village’ means an entire community of people is needed to interact positively with children for those children to grow up in a safe and healthy environment. The origins of the proverb has been researched, but not pinpointed. It is believed to embody the spirit of several African cultures, for example (Wikipedia):

• In Lunyoro (Bunyoro) there is a proverb that says “Omwana takulila nju emoi,” whose literal translation is “A child does not grow up only in a single home.”
• In Kihaya (Bahaya) there is a saying, “Omwana taba womoi,” which translates as “A child belongs not to one parent or home.”
• Kijita (Wajita) has the proverb, “Omwana ni wa bhone,” meaning regardless of a child's biological parents, its upbringing belongs to the community.
• In Swahili, the proverb “Asiye funzwa na mamae hufunzwa na ulimwengu” means roughly the same: "Whomsoever is not taught by the mother will be taught with the world."

The notion ‘it takes a village’ has subsequently been adopted by several authors, applied to a multitude of scenarios, and other books pubished. The definition of work-integrated learning (WIL) of the Canadian body for Co-operative Education and Work-integrated Learning (CEWIL) cited by Nielsen, Livernoche and Ramji (2022: 139) accurately captures the essence of workplace-based learning (WPBL, as form of WIL). CEWIL defines WIL as “a model and process of curricular experiential education which formally and intentionally integrates a student's academic studies within a workplace or practice setting. WIL experiences include an engaged partnership of at least: an academic institution, a host organization and a student”. The origins of WIL (and cooperative education) emphasised the close collaboration of academic institutions with the relevant community of practice, within the relevant industry that is involved, with regard to the necessary workplace experiences that form part of the curriculum. In addition, workplace mentoring by experienced practitioners, play a significant role in WPBL.

The Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework (HEQSF) of the Department of Higher Education and Training (South African Government, 2014), which indicates that the incorporation of work-integrated learning (WIL) into the curriculum is characteristic of vocational and professionally-oriented qualifications. The HEQSF, §35 (p. 17, emphases added) states that where the WIL component “takes the form of workplace-based learning, it is the responsibility of institutions that offer programmes requiring credits for such learning to place students into appropriate workplaces” and add that “such workplace-based learning must be appropriately structured, properly supervised and assessed”.

However, work-integrated learning need not necessary involve actual work. The HEQSF differentiates, in §34 (p. 17), various forms of work-integrated learning (WIL), namely:

• simulated learning [also known as simulated work experiences (SWEs)]
• work-directed theoretical learning [WDTL]
• problem-based learning [PBL]
• project-based learning [PjBL]
• workplace-based learning [WPBL] — Three Council on Higher Education publications (CHE: 2004a, 2004b & 2014) provide criteria with regard to work-based learning (WBL)

The South African Council on Higher Education, as independent statutory body and Quality Council for Higher Education (CHE: n.d.), published (CHE: 2011) a ‘Good Practice Guide’ towards work-integrated learning which deliberated the various modes mentioned above. The CHE (2014, Criterion 15, emphases added) recognises that ‘it takes a village’, by stating that “appropriate arrangements will be needed for placement, mentoring and supervision” and reiterates the “coordination of work-based learning must be done effectively, including adequate infrastructure, effective communication, recording of progress made, monitoring and mentoring”, plus the following:

• Learning agreements or contracts implemented through which the student, the higher education institution, the employer (workplace-based learning provider) and mentor negotiate, approve, adhere to agreed roles and responsibilities, and assess the objectives and outcomes of the learning process
• Regular and effective communication taking place and good working relations are maintained between the institution, students, mentors and employers involved
• System (both at the institution and at the place of workplace-based learning in operation to regularly and systematically monitor and record the progress of each student’s learning experience
• Mentoring system that enables each student to recognise his/her strengths and weaknesses, to develop existing and new abilities, and to gain knowledge of work practices

Nielsen et al. (2022: 139-140) indicate “a range of WIL programs: co-operative education (co-op), internships, entrepreneurships, apprenticeships, service learning, applied research projects, mandatory professional practicum/clinical placement, field placement, and work experience”; and add that “strategic WIL placements in partnership with Indigenous groups also offer opportunities for capacity-building, cultural revitalization, and community development”.

CHE (Council on Higher Education)

Cowen-Fletcher, J. (1994). It Takes a Village. Scholastic Press. [Information about accessible from https://janecowen-fletcher.com/it-takes-a-village]

Council on Higher Education (n.d.) Legislative and policy mandate. Electronically accessible from https://www.che.ac.za/about-us/legislative-and-policy-mandate

Council on Higher Education (2004a). Higher Education Quality Committee. Criteria for Programme Accreditation. Electronically accessible from https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/che2020-c5efd.appspot.com/o/website%2Fyxqlkgy7gwo1.pdf?alt=media&token=c1ea5d6e-2e05-463d-9f2b-bbf92d4b402b

Council on Higher Education (2004b). Higher Education Quality Committee. Criteria for Institutional Audits. Electronically accessible from https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/che2020-c5efd.appspot.com/o/website%2Fjh3xgy9ub11.pdf?alt=media&token=aa1b8117-5414-4e70-a363-50dc924a7d42

Council on Higher Education (2011). Work-Integrated Learning: Good Practice Guide. HE Monitor No. 12, August 2011. Pretoria: IeCommunications. Electronically accessible from https://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/Higher_Education_Monitor_12.pdf

Council on Higher Education (2014). Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Programme Accreditation Criteria, pp. 81 – 107. In Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide. Electronically accessible from https://www.saide.org.za/documents/CHE_-_Distance_Higher_Education.pdf

Nielsen, J., Livernoche, R. & Ramji, K. (2022). The Indigenous Work-integrated Learning Resource Hub: A needs-based approach to addressing barriers and opportunities for Indigenous students. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 23(2), 139-152. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_23_2_139_152.pdf

South African Government (2014), Department of Higher Education and Training, Government Notice No 819. Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework. Government Gazette No. 38116, 17 October 2014. Electronically accessible from https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201410/38116gon819.pdf

Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/It_takes_a_village

Empowerment through virtual experience programmes — virtual internships

Mid 2022, Standard Bank South Africa announced the launch of an initiative of virtual internships, with the aim of helping “students gain practical skills and experience that mirrors the work they will do”. The Head: Youth Development, Maymoona Ismail, explains that “the Virtual Experience Programmes aim to bridge this gap between education and industry” by means of video-guided “content, case studies and assessments” (TechFinancials). The virtual internships are free, self-paced and completely online “bite-sized 5-6 hour virtual work experience programs that give students a genuine career advantage” (Forage). Upon successful completion students will receive certificates to add to their resumes.

The virtual internships is one of several dedicated youth development and employment (YDE) initiatives towards “enabling access to inclusive quality education, job creation and supporting economic development in order to reduce inequality” (Digital Street).“Access to education is critical to unlocking the full potential of today’s youth, and we want to supplement their studies with insights that will allow young people to make more informed study and career decisions that lead to job creation,” says Ismail.

Two of the Virtual Experience Programmes are already live (Africa.com), namely ‘Accessing Work Opportunities’ and ‘Getting Ready for the World of Work’ (ITWeb) including “skills such as job searching, business communication and networking, personal branding, interview preparation and more” (Hypertext). Five more programmes to follow in August 2022 include “retail and investment banking, software development, engineering, and data science”. Those interested may sign up for free at https://bit.ly/SBWorkReadiness

Getting Ready to Join the Workforce Virtual Experience Programme - Register

Accessing the World of Work Virtual Experience Programme - Register

Forage recognises that there is a gap between the worlds of education and work. Forage endeavours to empower educators free of charge, to integrate scalable project-based learning, from leading international companies, into curriculums and internship programmes. Forage already offers more than 70 programmes in a range of fields (catalogue).