Learning in vivo

The Journal of Problem Based Learning in Higher Education

The Journal of Problem Based Learning in Higher Education (JPBLHE), launched in 2013, is an open access journal in accordance with the Budapest Open Access Initiative (BOAI). JPBLHE is peer reviewed. It is published annually, with additional discretionary special issues. The vision of JPBLHE is to be “a global outlet for scholarship in problem-based learning in higher education”, representing “state of the art research in theory and practice of PBL”, and actively seeking “to promote transformative and progressive university pedagogy”. The “mission of JPBLHE is to publish rigorous research related to problem-based learning in higher education”, engaging “key and emerging scholars in significant discussion of key issues facing PBL”; providing “up-to-date information to scholars and practitioners”; addressing “current gaps in the literature”; and transforming “current learning environments and practices”. The scope and coverage of JPBLHE includes:

• Principles and philosophy of PBL in Higher Education
• The pedagogy of PBL
• PBL and everyday practice
• PBL management and policy-making
• PBL and workplace cultures
• Critical PBL
• PBL, ICT and technology-enhanced learning
• PBL and networked learning
• PBL internships and cooperative education
• PBL and intercultural studies
• Interdisciplinarity and PBL
• PBL, creativity and creative processes

Workplace-based learning decision flow chart

In a July 2020 post I proposed a decision-making flowchart with regard to work-integrated learning (WIL). With this post my intention is to urge decision-making in the lights of stated imperatives.

The South African Government (2014), Department of Higher Education and Training, gazetted Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework (HEQSF), §35 (p. 17) specifies:

Where the entire WIL component or any part of it takes the form of workplace-based learning, it is the responsibility of institutions that offer programmes requiring credits for such learning to place students into appropriate workplaces. Such workplace-based learning must be appropriately structured, properly supervised and assessed.

While universities are under obligation (in accordance to HEQSF §35) to place students for such workplace-based learning, §34 (p. 17) of the HEQSF however states that work-integrated learning (WIL) “may take various forms including simulated learning, work-directed theoretical learning, problem-based learning, project-based learning and workplace-based learning”; and that “the selection of appropriate forms of work-integrated learning depends on the nature and purpose of the qualification type, programme objectives and outcomes, the NQF level at which the WIL component is pegged, institutional capacity to provide WIL opportunities, and the structures and systems that are in place within professional settings and sites of practice to support student learning”.

Should the university have opted for workplace-based learning, then a number of criteria—specified by the Council on Higher Education (2004a+b, 2014)—are applicable to such work-based learning. Summarised as follow:

• Appropriate system for distributed students
• Equivalent learning experiences across range of contexts
• Learning agreements between students, host organisations, and the university
• Learning objective & outcomes clarified
• Specified roles & responsibilities
• Continuous good working relations
• Effective & regular communication
• Systematic & regular recording about the learning of students
• Progress monitoring
• A mentoring system
• Students gaining knowledge of work practices
• Students helped recognising their strengths & weaknesses

Council on Higher Education (2014). Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Programme Accreditation Criteria, pp. 81 – 107. In Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide.

Council on Higher Education (2004a). Higher Education Quality Committee. Criteria for Programme Accreditation.

Council on Higher Education (2004b). Higher Education Quality Committee. Criteria for Institutional Audits.

South African Government (2014), Department of Higher Education and Training, Government Notice No 819. Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework. Government Gazette No. 38116, 17 October 2014.

Work-directed theoretical learning (WDTL)

The purpose of this post is to clarify work-directed theoretical learning (WDTL), as one of a number of experiential learning curricular modalities. It is deemed important that higher education academics in South Africa realise that if workplace learning (WPL), or work-based learning (WBL), is chosen as curricular modality, then a number of criteria and requirements apply. However, there are legitimate alternatives available to choose from. One of the alternatives entails work-directed theoretical learning (WDTL).

“University teachers [academics] should be concerned to ensure that the students that graduate from their programmes are prepared for the world in which they will live and work”, states the foreword of Council on Higher Education (2011) publication Work-Integrated Learning: Good Practice Guide. This publication differentiates several work-integrated learning (WIL) curricular modalities, namely:

• Work-directed theoretical learning (WDTL)
• Problem-based learning (PBL)
• Project-based learning (PJBL)
• Workplace learning (WPL)

The term work-based learning (WBL) is further often used as alternative term for WIL.

§34 and §35 (p. 17) of the Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework (HEQSF, 2014) pertain to WIL. §35 specifies that “Where the entire WIL component or any part of it takes the form of workplace-based learning [WPL/WBL], it is the responsibility of institutions that offer programmes requiring credits for such learning to place students into appropriate workplaces. Such workplace-based learning [WPL/WBL] must be appropriately structured, properly supervised and assessed.” The Council on Higher Education (CHE) Criteria for Programme Accreditation (2004) and Criteria for Institutional Audits (2004) specify requirements pertaining work-based learning.

The CHE Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide (2014) publication includes (pp 81-107) Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Programme Accreditation Criteria, A Companion to Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide. Criterion 15 specifies the minimum expectation pertaining to WPL/WBL.

However, §34 states that “In the HEQSF, WIL may take various forms including simulated learning [SWE], work-directed theoretical learning [WBTL], problem-based learning [PBL], project-based learning [PJBL] and workplace-based learning [WPL]”. §34 further states that “The selection of appropriate forms of work-integrated learning depends on the nature and purpose of the qualification type programme objectives and outcomes, the NQF level at which the WIL component is pegged, institutional capacity to provide WIL opportunities, and the structures and systems that are in place within professional settings and sites of practice to support student learning.” (emphases and acronyms added)

§34 of the HEQSF further clarifies that “Some qualifications will be designed to integrate theory and practice through the incorporation of work-integrated learning (WIL) into the curriculum. WIL is characteristic of vocational and professionally-oriented qualifications, and may be incorporated into programmes at all levels of the HEQSF.” Also that “Where WIL is a structured part of a qualification the volume of learning allocated to WIL should be appropriate to the purpose of the qualification and to the cognitive demands of the learning outcomes and assessment criteria contained in the appropriate level descriptors.” (emphases added)

It is concluded that in cases where workplace-based learning [WPL/WBL] is formalised as part of the curriculum, a number of conditions apply to such learning, including the responsibility of the university concerned to place students. Mutereko and Wedekind (2016) report in this regard that more than 65% of students studying at South African Higher Education Institutions, although a prerequisite for completion of many qualifications, are unable to find workplace experience. It is quite evident, however, from the aforementioned that provision is made for a range of alternatives “to ensure that the students that graduate from … programmes are prepared for the world in which they will live and work”. One of these alternates is work-directed theoretical learning (WBTL).

What exactly is work-directed theoretical learning (WDTL)?

Du Plessis (2015, p. 52) indicates that work-directed theoretical learning “refers to academic or theoretical learning which is structured by focusing on what the student needs to know to be able to function sufficiently in the workplace” (emphasis added). She adds that “teaching and learning activities for WDTL should be aligned to bring theory and practice together in meaningful ways” and references §3.4.1 (p. 16) of the CHE (2011) Good Practice Guide. She elaborates further by pointing out the importance “that the design of WDTL activities aligns the disciplinary demands with workplace relevance so that students understand the necessity of having a sound knowledge base in preparation of what will be expected of them in the workplace” (emphasis added).

Mutereko and Wedekind (2016, p. 904) synthesised the attempts of several authors to operationalise and classify different kinds of work knowledge. They summarise that knowledge can be divided into two broad classes, namely explicit and tacit knowledge. Whereas the first (explicit) is transmittable in familiar language it is teachable. However, the latter (tacit) is embedded in action in specific context and cannot be articulated, and therefore teachable through modelling the tacit skills. Tacit knowledge, furthermore, has two components, namely cognitive form (which helps to perceive their world) and technical form (applicable to specific settings).

Mutereko and Wedekind (2016, p. 905) express concern that conventional pedagogy “suffers the risk of leaving inexperienced students with the impression that subsequent field problems can be nestled into neat technical packages”. Work process knowledge, distinguishable from discipline-based knowledge, is “as a combination of practical and theoretical knowledge”. “While theoretical knowledge is context free, guides action, is academic, is objective and justifies the action, practical knowledge is contextualised as implicit (tacit) and subjective”. Work process knowledge “is acquired through action ‘in the work process itself’”.

The synthesis by Mutereko and Wedekind (2016, p. 905) further points out “three kinds of knowledge, namely knowledge by acquaintance, propositional knowledge and knowledge how”:

• “Knowledge by acquaintance [similar to tacit knowledge above] is the knowledge that is acquired ‘through the senses and these need not to be just one sense’ and … embodies attributes that could not be expressed and understood in any other way”

• Propositional knowledge or declarative knowledge
• “Knowledge how [or procedural knowledge] is related to skill and a significant proportion of it is tacit … [it] ‘involves recognising and following rules for carrying out actions and the exercise of intentional agency’”

Mutereko and Wedekind (2016, p. 905) emphasise that proper sequencing of teaching and learning is important “so as to develop the desired expertise”.

Different ways to achieve work-directed theoretical learning

The South African Veterinary Council (2016, p. 4) emphasises accepted ‘Day One’ competencies of the profession (or vocation) concerned. It asserts that a qualification’s curriculum should provide adequate practical (or applied) experience for graduates to acquire ‘Day One’ competencies. The curriculum design (p. 7) must specify how the ‘Day One’ competencies for appropriate levels of students will be accomplished. All students should receive (p. 11) the ‘Day One’ skills list; and assessment practices (p. 10) must be aligned to the ‘Day One’ competencies, meaningful, relevant and reliable. Stakeholder representation (p. 5) and involvement, in order to ensure relevance, is deemed a minimum standard.

A variety of teaching and learning activities can be utilised to facilitate work-directed theoretical learning (WDTL), such as:

• Inclusion of podcasts by guest lecturers (or speakers/presenters) from both the workplace and professional practice in the learning materials. Just-in-time podcasts can be created about contemporary developments, to illustrate application and stimulate interest.
• Podcasts and/or case studies about real-life occurrences and industry experiences would give students insights into theoretical contexts.
• Real-life case studies, from the world of work (or professional practice in the field) would both enhance learning and ensure that the link between theoretical learning and what is happening in the workplace stays intact.
• The use of assessors from the workplace and/or field of practice would enhance authenticity.
• Electronic tutorials (as well as face-to-face), facilitated by practitioners from the occupational-field could greatly contribute to students better grasping the applications in realities.
• Demonstrations (through videos) and simulations (virtual realities) are potential ways to replicate real-life settings.
• Structured interactive sessions, within for example a laboratory, could establish the link between the theory and practice and facilitate learning.
• Peer learning, within in groups, could be utilised for students to learn from one another, as well as to stimulate critical thinking and the formation of links through the sharing of knowledge and experiences. Dialogue with both peers and teachers/academics elicits those activities that shape, elaborate and deepen understanding.

Council on Higher Education (2004). Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC). Criteria for Programme Accreditation. Pretoria: Compress. Electronically accessible from http://www.che.ac.za/media_and_publications/frameworks-criteria/criteria-programme-accreditation

Council on Higher Education (2004). Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC). Criteria for Institutional Audits. Pretoria: Compress. Electronically accessible from http://www.che.ac.za/media_and_publications/frameworks-criteria/criteria-institutional-audits

Council on Higher Education (2011). Work-Integrated Learning: Good Practice Guide. HE Monitor No. 12, August 2011. Pretoria: IeCommunications. Electronically accessible from http://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/Higher_Education_Monitor_12.pdf

Council on Higher Education (2014). Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide. Electronically accessible from http://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/CHE%20-%20Distance%20Higher%20Education.pdf

Du Plessis, J.G.E. (2015). A work-integrated learning education and training programme for radiography in South Africa. University of Free State, a doctoral thesis. Electronically accessible from http://scholar.ufs.ac.za:8080/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11660/1064/DuPlessisJGE.pdf?sequence=1

Mutereko, S. and Wedekind, V. (2016). Work integrated learning for engineering qualifications: a spanner in the works? Journal of Education and Work, 29(8), 902–921. Electronically accessible from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13639080.2015.1102211

South African Government (2014). Department of Higher Education and Training, Government Notice No 819. Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework. Government Gazette No. 38116, 17 October 2014. Electronically accessible from http://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/38116_gon819.pdf and/or http://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/CHE%20-%20Higher%20Education%20Qualification%20Framework%20-%20EDITED%20171013.pdf

South African Veterinary Council (2016). Work integrated learning policy for veterinary and para-veterinary professional students. Electronically accessible from http://www.savc.org.za/pdf_docs/2016%20JUL%2026_SAVC%20WIL%20POLICY.pdf

Are two decades of democracy portraying neglect?

Looking at the front page of this publication, from a building maintenance perspective, what does the photo convey?

The Council on Higher Education (CHE) is an independent South African statutory body; a quality council that advises the Minister of Higher Education and Training; and responsible for promotion of quality assurance. So why has this photograph of a neglected wall been chosen?

The publication’s sub-title reads: ‘Eight task team reports’. The table of contents, in addition to the (1) Overview, includes seven chapters namely about (2) Regulation, (3) Governance, (4) Teaching and Learning, (5) Research, (6) Community Engagement, (7) Academic Staffing, and (8) Funding.

In the overview, Denyse Webbstock, sketches the broad higher education (HE) context with regard to (a) the international trends of massification and globalization; (b) a fundamental shift “in the way knowledge is defined and understood, and how this affects purpose” (p. 14); and (c) the swift growth rate of information and communication technologies. Webbstock highlights two key narratives with regard to the knowledge-shift, namely (i) it “is seen to be no longer residing in particular institutions and contained within specific content to which only a few gain access”; and (ii) it became ‘commodified’—one of many products “in a market-dominated consumer society”. Webbstock further (p. 16) cites Barber, Donnelly and Rizvi (2013) speculation “about the emergence of a diversity of institutional types”, such as few elite universities focusing on research; “mass universities providing good education for a rapidly growing global middle class mostly through blended approaches”; niche universities; “local universities that provide for the development of skills for local and regional economic development”; and “lifelong learning institution offering short courses to supplement workplace experiential learning” (CHE 2016: 16).

Webbstock (CHE 2016: 43) addresses differentiation further by pointing out “the lack of a clear direction on which to move forward”. This and the lack of clarity of HE institution type, with regard to the relevant proportion of ‘vocational-type’ qualifications, further impacts both identity and teaching and learning practices. The two decades’ of experimentation with regard to the role of Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) for training further exacerbated and weakened the vocational mandate. A devaluing of industry experience in the appointment of staff, with a preference given to academic qualifications also became evident. There had furthermore been both a “move away from work integrated learning” (p. 44) and a diminished “role of the Advisory Boards comprising academic and industry partners that had helped to shape their curricula”.

Webbstock (CHE 2016: 45) indicates that teaching and learning, “how curriculum is organised and what attitudes, values and practices are cultivated” are significantly impacted by institutional type and qualification/programme purpose. Particularly are comprehensive institutions, difficulty is witnessed, with regard to integrating different pedagogies, resulting in gravitation “towards homogeneity rather than differentiation”.

In chapter 4, on Teaching and Learning (CHE 2016: 143-191), “the implications of differentiation on teaching” (pp. 153-157) is again addressed. It is stated, among others, that if there is not “a clear sense of institutional identity” (p. 155) then “Academics have a very difficult time determining what is expected of them in terms of the kinds of graduates they should be developing” and that “Indeed there can be no fitness for purpose in teaching and learning when the purpose of the university is not clearly articulated”.

The South African National Qualifications Framework (NQF) characterises diploma programmes/qualifications as providing “a ‘depth and specialisation of knowledge, together with practical skills and experience in the workplace’ to enable successful learners to ‘enter a number of career paths and to apply their learning to particular employment contexts from the outset’” (CHE 2016: 155). In this regard, Christine Winberg cited in CHE (2016: 156), states that although “The use of experiential learning, or work integrated learning (WIL), was a central characteristic of most national diplomas, but research on the use of this pedagogical approach showed that in many cases this form of learning was entirely uncurriculated, with students having to find their own placement and then spending their time on activities that provided no access to specialized workplace knowledge, such as making tea and doing photocopies”. Accordingly, the CHE’s “programme accreditation process introduced in 2004 made it clear that work integrated learning modules could not count for credits unless they were very clearly curriculated, with the university responsible for the placement, support and assessment of students” (CHE 2016: 156); resulting in many cases the work-integrated learning either removed or the period substantially reduced.

Council on Higher Education. (2016) South African Higher Education reviewed, two decades of democracy. Pretoria: CHE. Electronically available from http://www.che.ac.za/media_and_publications/monitoring-and-evaluation/south-african-higher-education-reviewed-two-decad-0

Barber, M., Donnelly, K. & Rizvi, S. (2013) ‘An avalanche is coming: Higher education and the revolution ahead’ (report) (Institute for Public Policy Research: London). Electronically available from http://www.ippr.org/files/images/media/files/publication/2013/04/avalanche-is-coming_Mar2013_10432.pdf?noredirect=1

Winberg, C. (2006) Undisciplining knowledge production: Development driven higher education in South Africa Higher Education, 51, 159-172. Electronically available from http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10734-004-6378-5

Practice-based education as means to preparing graduates for occupational practice

The publication ‘Practice-based education — Perspectives and Strategies’ presents and deals with “PBE as a notion and an approach to education that is grounded in the preparation of graduates for occupational practice” states Higgs (2012: 3).

Trede and McEwen (2012: 27) use practice-based education (PBE) as umbrella term for a set of educational work-integrated practices, which share a situated and contextualised approach to professional education at universities. They observe that PBE is located in a contemporary space of regulated national standards and competency frameworks that are emphasising technical skills and knowledge. There is a preoccupation with graduates being work-ready, what they can do, and with procedures—in order to ‘hit the ground running’ when employed. Trede and McEwen (2012: 28) argue that PBE should provide a holistic perspective of professional practice, as being socially-situated and contextualised. Professional identity formation is an equally important aspect of PBE.

Higgs (2012: 6, 8-9) presents (Table 1.2 Download Higgs_J_pp8-9) a range of dimensions of teaching and learning activities (or standards) involved in achieving learning outcomes, namely:

• Curriculum design (qualified as the planned content, learning activities and assessment)
  • Standard 23—Staff in workplace learning placements ensure a relevant balance between student learning and client services
• Curriculum review (specified as continuous quality improvement)
• Risk management of the curriculum
• Actual PBE teaching and learning activities
  • Standard 29—Distance students have learning activities to develop practice skills, cultural capabilities, interactive skills, professional identity, etc.
• Inclusion of work-integrated learning (WIL) or workplace learning (WPL) activities
  • Standard 31—Provide WPL activities to gain real-world and/or simulated experiences to develop sound decision making in practice
  • Standard 32—Provide WIL strategies (e.g. simulations, e-learning, visits by industry partners and clients) to bring the practice work into the classroom (E-learning is of particular value to distance students.)

Higgs (2012: 6, 10-11) presents (Table 1.3 Download Higgs_J_pp10-11) the infrastructure and resources necessary for good PBE, namely:

• Staffing (including numbers and expertise)
• Staff support and development systems
• Student support systems
  • Standard 39—Systems and schemes are in place to support students and their participation in learning opportunities (e.g. WPL placements)
• On-campus workplace learning environments
  • Standard 40—To enable students to gain relevant work experience either to complement real-world experience or, when real workplace learning is not feasible, the school/faculty provides alternative learning opportunities, e.g. via simulated learning and workplaces or university clinics/farms, etc.
  • These strategies provide for:
    • developing practice skills & knowledge of the occupation
    • developing professional identity
    • learning to work in practice communities
    • developing relevant interaction and social capabilities
    • developing professional decision-making and self-appraisal skills
  • Standard 41—Resources create an up-to-date practice-relevant setting that enables student to experience their practice world, e.g.
    • real/simulated clients
    • practice workloads
    • real/simulated interactions with practice communities, clients and local communities
• Learning resources

Higgs, J. 2012. Practice-based education — the practice-education-context-quality nexus, 3-12. In Higgs, J. et al. (Eds.). Practice-based education — Perspectives and Strategies. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.

Trede, F. & McEwen, C. 2012. Developing a critical professional identity — engaging self in practice, 27-40. In Higgs, J. et al. (Eds.). Practice-based education — Perspectives and Strategies. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.

Higgs, J., Barnett, R., Billett, S., Hutchings, M. & Trede, F. 2012. Practice-based education — Perspectives and Strategies. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.

Innovative marketing for better cooperative and work-integrated education

The globalisation era, characterised, among others, by rapid and extensive social networking, as well as borderless information flow, present both opportunities and challenges. In order to gain and retain competitive advantage in this dynamic context, innovative approaches are required. Dynamic capabilities theory, referenced by Chuwiruch, Jhundra-Indra and Boonlua (2015: 83), entails the “abilities in dealing with rapidly changing environment through integrating, building, and reconfiguring internal and external competencies”. They advocate five dimensions towards innovative marketing, namely (1) internet marketing focus; (2) relationship marketing concentration; (3) customer co-creation orientation; (4) alternative marketing awareness; and (5) alliance marketing concern. These dimensions in turn impact consequential variables, namely (a) brand trust; (b) customer fulfilment; (c) marketing image and (d) marketing performance.

Five dimensions towards innovative marketing	How to optimise with regard to cooperative and work-integrated education (CWIE)
1.    Internet marketing focus	Business is increasingly using social networking for enhancing three-way communication with stake-holders. Higher education could derive positive benefits from using social networking and increase contact with and among (‘word-of-mouth’) practitioners in occupational-fields.
2.    Relationship marketing concentration	Relationship marketing includes activities in building relationships at every interaction. The intention is to nurture relationships; keep existing customers; attracting new customers; and to create future benefits. Higher education should strive to maintain durable relationships with providers of work-integrated/place learning opportunities.
3.    Customer co-creation orientation	Co-creation entails the incorporation of customer experiences in ‘product’ development. Higher education need to engage the relevant occupational field to better understand what the expected outcomes are of qualifications offered; and revise curriculums accordingly.
4.    Alternative marketing awareness	‘Alternative’ implies actions different from the usual/traditional ways. With regard to CWIE, higher education needs to actively engage with stakeholders of the relevant occupational fields.
5.    Alliance marketing concern	The forming of alliances with rivals/competitors at appropriate levels has been found to be beneficial. Higher education must seek alliances in the interest of reciprocal benefits.

Pursuing of all five dimensions is likely to positively influence band trust, customer fulfilment, image, and market performance. Trust is about confidence in reliability and integrity, about honesty and generosity in exchange. Brand comprises “name, term, symbol, logo, and/or design which is used in recognizing a product/service … and distinguishes these products/services from those of its competitors” (Chuwiruch, Jhundra-Indra & Boonlua, 2015: 87). Of particular importance to CWIE is the fact that brand trust involves willingness to count on or display confidence and a degree of positive expectations, which should be instilled within the occupational fields concerned. Brand trust directly impacts affirmative decisions. The fulfilment of customer needs is depicted by a higher education institution’s competence to correctly interpret the needs of the relevant occupational field and produce work-ready graduates. Advisory structures and processes (which could include social networking) play an important role. The marketing image involves a ‘set of meanings’ by which is made know and remembered. This is of significance to CWIE in that stakeholders in occupational fields in that the marketing image either add value or detracts about the credibility and quality of the particular higher education institution.

A conceptual model produced by Chuwiruch, Jhundra-Indra and Boonlua (2015: 89):

P1 - Internet marketing focus will have a positive effect on (a) brand trust, (b) customer fulfillment, (c) marketing image, and (d) marketing performance.

P2 - Relationship marketing concentration will have a positive effect on (a) brand trust, (b) customer fulfillment, (c) marketing image, and (d) marketing performance.

P3 - Customer co-creation orientation will have a positive effect on (a) brand trust, (b) customer fulfillment, (c) marketing image, and (d) marketing performance

P4 - Alternative marketing awareness will have a positive effect on (a) brand trust, (b) customer fulfillment, (c) marketing image, and (d) marketing performance.

P5 - Alliance marketing concern will have a positive effect on (a) brand trust, (b) customer fulfillment, (c) marketing image, and (d) marketing performance.

P6 - Brand trust will have a positive effect on marketing performance.

P7 - Customer fulfillment will have a positive effect on marketing performance.

P8 - Marketing image will have a positive effect on marketing performance.

Chuwiruch, N. Jhundra-Indra, P. & Boonlua, S. 2015. Marketing innovation strategy and marketing performance: a conceptual framework. Proceedings of the Academy of Marketing Studies, 19(2), 82-93. Available through subscription from https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-3951646411.html

Found missing from work-integrated learning research

Patricia Rowe, Professor Emerita, University of Waterloo, asked fellow practitioners “what research findings you think have been ignored, either by other researchers or by practitioners?” and “whether there is an issue that you think has been neglected or is worthy of more attention by researchers?” (Rowe, 2015: 102). She integrated and categorized the reflections by participants, her literature findings and her own experiences to produce a table (p. 103) of ‘Negative or neglected findings related to each stakeholder’.

• Under student issues are included jobs reported boring or ‘do not have enough to do’; research findings ‘that any employment differences between WIL and non-WIL graduates disappear after a few years’; most employment benefits experienced by those students ‘who accept post-graduation jobs with a previous WIL employer’; relative benefits unknown of paid versus unpaid WIL; differences such as personality, interests and other pre-placement ‘makes subsequent effects questionable’; the ‘amount, length, and type of work necessary to produce effects are unknown’; ‘causes and consequences of quitting WIL programs have not been studied’; participation in WIL might be monetary motivated whereas other ‘may have more altruistic motivations’; alternating work and study may cause disconnection from campus life; and differences on cross-cultural competencies from study or work abroad is unknown.
• With regard to institutional (faculty and staff) the following issues: non-engaged or non-committed to WIL; inconclusive or weak evidence of effects from participation in WIL on future academic performance; difficulty balancing WIL coordination and academic workloads; and students may derive similar from teaching or research assistantships as may from WIL;
• With regard to institutional administration the following issues: decline in enrolments for qualifications that include WIL; ‘WIL is too much driven by industry’; harder to place international students and requiring more resources; ‘WIL practices may not transfer to other cultures’; and ‘institutional control of work integration may not be necessary to enhance learning’.
• The following employer issues are listed: many ‘employers hire once and never return’; ‘often cancel jobs’ [placement opportunities]; main reason of many employers ‘for participating in WIL is recruitment, [and] attracting future employees’; some ‘employers are only looking to meet short-resourcing needs’; some ‘work term lengths that are not suited to the academic year or semester’; ‘report that considerable staff time is required to hire, train, and supervise WIL students’; some participating companies do not have jobs that relate to WIL goals; and the ‘ideal conditions on the job that will enhance student success are not well defined’.
• Some miscellaneous issues include: ‘relevancy and value of a work term’ varies ‘from the perspectives of faculty, students, coordinators, and employers’; ‘WIL is so broadly defined that it includes far too many kinds of experiences (work terms, internships, volunteer activities, part-time work, etc.)’; the ‘theoretical constructs used in most research are too limiting’; difficulty to isolate the effects caused by WIL, compared to other work experiences; and research should be replicated.

Rowe, P.M. 2015. Researchers' reflections on what is missing from work-integrated learning research. Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 16(2), 101-107.

Six-tumbler combination lock, experiential learning metaphor

Beard and Wilson (2013) unlock powerful experiential learning through their new conceptual framework: A six-tumbler learning combination lock (p. 7). They pride themselves in having brought together, for the first time (to their knowledge), all the core ingredients in a simple diagnostic tool.

The visual metaphor of six tumblers; represent from left to right:

• First, the learning environment within which the learning takes place—belonging. This comprises the people, the place and the space—where and with whom? The appropriateness of the learning environment strongly impacts the learning experience and is therefore an important consideration.
• The second part of the external environment is the learning activities—doing. What will the learners or students actually do? There are many different forms of potential learning opportunities.
• The third and fourth tumblers portray the how—representing respectively the senses (sensing) through which stimuli are received; and the emotions (feelings) from engaging. The stimuli from the external environment are internalized through interpretation.
• The fifth tumbler depicts reasoning or thinking, and engagement of the intellect (mind).
• The sixth tumbler, when aligned, ‘unlocks’ the learning—it represents the change or transformation within; the being of the learner.

The tumbler-pack represents a collective set of possible learning practices and the selection of options. These tumblers are metaphorically attached to a spindle and a dial. When the right combination is dialled, all the tumblers line up perfectly and unlocks.

Beard, C. and Wilson, J.P. 2013. Experiential Learning—A Handbook for Education, Training and Coaching, 3^rd edit. London: Kogan Page.

 

Learning of a different kind occurs when opportunity to apply

Bringing life to learning, a report about experiential learning at Ontario universities, states in the Introduction (Council of Ontario Universities, 2014: 12 - Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p12) that when there is no exam to study for, no essay to write, a different kind of learning occurs. An experiential learning opportunity is where curiosity gets tested in the real world, where knowledge and skills that have been learned are applied to a real life project.

The report further addresses experiential learning issues pertaining to:

• When students of work-integrated learning programs land dream jobs (pp. 13-14)  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p13 &  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p14
  
• Cultivation of business leadership (pp. 15-16)  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p15 &  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p16
• Innovations in technology (p. 17)  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p17
• Hearing from students and graduates (p. 19)  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p19 &  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p20
• Students shaping communities (pp. 21-22) Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p21 &  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p22
• What students and graduates are saying (p. 23)  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p23
• Bridging of borders (p. 24)  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p24
• Students facilitating healthy living (pp. 25-26)  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p25 &  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p26
• Students enriching communities with the arts (p. 27)  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p27
• Universities adding value through experiential learning (p.29)  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p29

Council of Ontario Universities. 2014. Bringing life to learning, at Ontario universities — Experiential Learning Report. Toronto: Council of Ontario Universities. Electronically accessible from: http://www.cou.on.ca/publications/reports/pdfs/march262014---experiential-learning-report?utm_content=buffer89cdc&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer

How to formulate questions for significant learning

Forward-looking assessment is exactly what is stated, namely to consider situations current students would in future encounter. To consider the knowledge, skills and experiences current students would in such future scenarios need in order to successfully deal with such situations.

Once there is clarity about the future scenarios, questions or problems need to be formulated which when answered or solved would have drawn from the relevant knowledge and skills (learned in academic modules) and given the student the relevant experience of real-life replicas. Fink (2005: 13) says “certain assumptions or constraints can be given”.

Fink, L.D. 2005. A Self-Directed Guide to Designing Courses for Significant Learning. University of Oklahoma.

WIL leaders drive shared industry-and-university WIL outcomes

The fifth domain concludes the WIL Leadership Framework, published (Download LE11_2084_Patrick_Report_2014) under Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. The table below, copied from page 34 of the project report captures this domain and is supplemented by eight vignettes on the ACEN webpage:

• Aiming high in teacher education placements
• Service Learning at Griffith University
• WIL: Delivering engaged curriculum and graduate employability at UWS
• Integrating industry experience throughout a construction management program
• Working with industry partners to avert future school tragedies
• Professional learning and leadership through WIL partnerships
• The Ultimate Partnership – The indigo Project – An NGO, a high school and a university
• Interior Design and Decoration Mentor Program

The WIL Leadership Framework. 2014. The Australian Collaborative Education Network (ACEN).

Patrick, C-J; & Fallon, W. (eds). 2014. Leading WIL: distributed leadership approach to enhance work integrated learning outcomes. Sydney: Australian Government Office for Learning and Teaching.

WIL leaders communicate and influence WIL

The WIL Leadership Framework comprises five domains. The fourth domain is about communicating and influencing work-integrated learning. The table below is copied from page 33 of the project report referenced (Patrick & Fallon 2014) and is supplemented on the ACEN webpage by a vignette ‘Aiming high in teacher education placements’.

The WIL Leadership Framework. 2014. The Australian Collaborative Education Network (ACEN).

Patrick, C-J; & Fallon, W. (eds). 2014. Leading WIL: distributed leadership approach to enhance work integrated learning outcomes. Sydney: Australian Government Office for Learning and Teaching.

WIL leaders shape the vision

The leadership role of work-integrated learning practitioners in universities and associated collaborating industries entails five domains (ACEN’s WIL leadership framework; Patrick & Fallon) which are provided under Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. The first domain, namely shaping of WIL vision, is captured on page 30 of a report on a project undertaken and copied below. An ACEN webpage furthermore supplements this domain with five vignettes:

• WIL: Delivering engaged curriculum and graduate employability at UWS
• Engaging the Refugee Community of Greater Western Sydney
• Professional learning and leadership through WIL partnerships
• Creating resources for WIL experiences in teaching and learning
• Wil[ling] and wanting to create a shared understanding of WIL@Deakin

The WIL Leadership Framework. 2014. The Australian Collaborative Education Network (ACEN).

Patrick, C-J; & Fallon, W. (eds). 2014. Leading WIL: distributed leadership approach to enhance work integrated learning outcomes. Sydney: Australian Government Office for Learning and Teaching.

What is leadership of work-integrated learning (WIL) about?

What are WIL leaders and what is work-integrated learning (WIL) leadership about? An Australian Government Office for Learning and Teaching project report, published September 2014, addresses these issues. Page 4 (emphasis added) defines WIL leadership and WIL leaders:

WIL leadership refers to the activities that surround the development, promotion, organisation, management and delivery of Work Integrated Learning. This leadership takes place both within higher education institutions and also in workplaces located within industry and community organisations.

WIL leaders, the report further states, are practitioners based within either a higher education institution, or based within the associated organisations. As practitioners WIL leaders teach, host, support or employ WIL students and operate in either formal or informal roles to provide formal or informal leadership of Work Integrated Learning.

Patrick, C-J; & Fallon, W. (eds). 2014. Leading WIL: distributed leadership approach to enhance work integrated learning outcomes. Sydney: Australian Government Office for Learning and Teaching.

Accreditation Criteria for the WIL of Programmes in distance HE, in a Digital Era

Criteria for programme accreditation and for institutional audits were set by the South African Council on Higher Education (CHE) in 2004. These criteria were interpreted from a distance education perspective, in a digital era. The following criteria specifically apply to work-integrated/based learning:

Criterion 1 (iii): Programme Design (p. 86) should indicate how equivalence of learning provision across all sites/contexts will be ensured including, among others, work-integrated learning components.

Criterion 1 (vi): The characteristics and needs of professional and vocational education (p. 88), catered for in the design, namely:

• To promote the understanding of students about the specific occupation for which they are being trained
• Students to master the techniques and skills required for a specific profession or occupation
• Work-integrated learning (WIL) including, workplace-based learning and placement in a work-based environment, forms an integral part of the curriculum according to the HEQSF qualification type selected.
• There are appropriate ‘enabling mechanisms’ (e.g. placements in appropriate and proximate locations) for distance education students, and for the contexts in which they find places for work-integrated learning, where this is appropriate to the programme purpose, to ensure that ‘students master the techniques and skills required’
• There are documented procedures for the identification, training and monitoring/ support of workplace-based mentors as well as making provision for visits/interaction with supervisors appointed, trained and monitored by the institution.
• Institutions make clear how the above will be managed for a distributed student body and a diversity of contexts.

Criterion 15: Coordination of work-based/integrated learning (p. 104) is done effectively, including adequate infrastructure, effective communication, recording of progress made, monitoring and mentoring. These arrangements will likely be more complex in distance provision due to the more distributed nature of students and the geographic footprint of distance programmes which may even extend beyond national borders. Appropriate arrangements will be needed for placement, mentoring and supervision for a more distributed student body to ensure an equivalent learning experience across a wider range of contexts.

• (ii) Learning contracts or agreements are implemented through which the student, the higher education institution and the employer can negotiate, approve and assess the objectives and outcomes of the learning process. Various parties, i.e. the institution, students, mentors and employers, adhere to the contract or agreement on their roles and responsibilities.
• (iii) Regular and effective communication takes place between the institution, students, mentors and employers involved in work-based learning. Good working relations are maintained between the various parties involved.
• (iv) A system (both at the institution and at the place of employment) is in operation to record and monitor regularly and systematically the progress of the student’s learning experience in the workplace.
• (v) A mentoring system enables the student to recognise strengths and weaknesses in his/her work, to develop existing and new abilities, and to gain knowledge of work practices.

Council on Higher Education (CHE). 2014. Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Programme Accreditation Criteria, pp. 81-107 in Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide. Produced on behalf of the CHE by the South African Institute for Distance Education (Saide). Pretoria: CHE.

Four curricular modalities of WIL

The four different curricular modalities of work-integrated learning identified in the CHE’s (2011) Work-Integrated Learning: Good Practice Guide are revisited in the CHE’s (2014) Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide, namely

• Work-directed theoretical learning.
• Problem-based learning.
• Project-based learning.
• Workplace learning.

It is said that “the general issues and principles discussed there would apply also in a distance education context but with the added complexity of how institutions design, manage, support and assess these kinds of approaches in such a way as to ensure equivalence of experience across a distributed and diverse body of students” (p. 34).

Council on Higher Education (CHE). 2014. Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide. Produced on behalf of the CHE by the South African Institute for Distance Education (Saide). Pretoria: CHE.

Is work-integrated learning part of a blend or mix?

“In reality most institutions now offer a blend of lectures, tutorials, practical sessions, field work and/or work-integrated learning/work-based education, and ICT-supported learning experiences, as well as more independent self-learning and peer collaborative learning opportunities (which may be mediated in face-to-face sessions, or online, or a mix of both)” states the recently published Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide (Council on Higher Education, 2014: 1). However, pp. 11 and 85 qualifies that work-integrated learning applies to some programmes. It is furthermore stated that the management of work-integrated learning requires “careful planning and support if students are more widely distributed” (p. 84).

Council on Higher Education (CHE). 2014. Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide (and companion document Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Programme Accreditation Criteria, pp. 81-107 ). Produced on behalf of the CHE by the South African Institute for Distance Education (Saide). Pretoria: CHE.

Vision: skilling South Africans for SIPs through SIPs

The vision of the Strategic Infrastructure Projects (SIPs) Skills Plan (Skills for and through SIPs, Chapter 1, 2014: 26) is skilling South Africans for SIPs and through SIPs. A core principle in this regard is that building people's skills is as critical as building physical assets. The notion occupation—and the organisation framework for occupations (OFO)—is of particular importance for the SIPs Skills Plan.

In order to estimate the skills required (Skills for and through SIPs, Chapter 2, 2014: 37-39) for the 18 approved SIPs, the occupational needs of a typical prototype project had been considered.

 

The scarce and critical skills required were determined (Skills for and through SIPs, Chapter 2, 2014: 41). In order to determine the skills gaps (Skills for and through SIPs, Chapter 3, 2014: 47-53) the methodology included consideration of the flow of staff per occupation:

 

The overall envisaged demand, including private sector (industry and commerce); other public and the 18 approved SIPs; is depicted below:

Occupational Teams, comprising people who care

The purpose of Occupational Teams in the management of the Strategic Infrastructure Projects (SIPs) includes ensuring curriculum relevance and the alignment between institutional (theoretical) and workplace (practical) learning; as well as to address systemic problems with work placements at national level. Occupational Teams comprise representatives from education and training providers, employers, professional and other assessment and certification bodies. Illustrated as follow:

The notion Occupational Teams originates historically from the former apprenticeship committees and the system of technikon-advisory committees; aimed at keeping the training and/or education up to date and relevant. The publication Skills for and through SIPs, states that much work still need to be done in building occupational networks. The SharePoint portal serves as critical tool for dispersed communities of practice; in order to engage with, comment on and contribute to draft reports prepared by the core team. Higher education institutions are encouraged to:

• Establish employer- partnerships to expand learner and lecturer placements with the view of enhance institutional responsiveness.
• Volunteer lecturers/academics to take part in Occupational Teams and/or their networks with the aim to comment on generated reports.

‘SIPping’ skills towards national growth

Sipping means to drink (a liquid) a little at a time; or to take small tastes of; or to absorb/take in, for example ‘to sip knowledge at its source’. In this instance SIP, as acronym, stands for Strategic Integrated Project; for which and through which scarce skills acquisition is envisaged. Schedule 3 of the Infrastructure Development Act (No 23 of 2014, p. 32) list 18 SIPs.

In 2012, the South African Government adopted a National Infrastructure Plan with the aim of transforming the economic landscape and simultaneously creating jobs and to strengthen the delivery of basic services. The webpage of the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET), under Special Projects in the green menu bar, the fourth item opens a September 2014 published document titled Skills for and through SIPs, with the subtitle what has been done and still needs to be done to Skill South Africans for SIPs and through SIPs. The ministries of Higher Education and Training (DHET), Economic Development, Public Works, and Public Service and Administration collaborated in identifying the scarce skills needed for the Strategic Integrated Projects (SIPs). An invitation is extended for commentary—through the portal https://sip-skills.onlinecf.net—on the recommendations contained in the report. Chapter 14 identifies several ways in which the processes might be taken forward and call to action all stakeholders.