Learning in vivo

Problem-based learning through community engagement

“Service learning and problem-based learning (PBL) are distinct”, yet related and potentially synergistic paradigms say McDonald and Ogden-Barnes (2013: 281) and indicate that:

• The essence of problem-based learning (PBL), as form of work-integrated learning (WIL) entail exposure of students to ‘real world’ or simulated organisational or operational challenges, and the development of solutions thereto
• Service learning is deemed valuable in developing the social conscious of students, and is actively promoted as an educational strategy for developing stronger links between the educational institution and its community

PBL resorts within the constructivist paradigm, and is aimed at developing the abilities of students “to think, collaborate, and synthesise in the pursuit of solutions, applying personal, interpersonal, professional and academic learning and experiences to a ‘real world’ issue” (McDonald and Ogden-Barnes, 2013: 281). However, there is a distinct difference PBL and problem-solving learning, in that the latter is concentrated “on eliciting answers to questions posed specifically in relation to the discipline curriculum” they indicate. Furthermore, PBL “is characterized by flexibility and diversity in the sense that it can be implemented in a variety of ways in and across different subjects and disciplines in diverse contexts” they point out. The ultimate success of PBL as “learning strategy is the identification, design and communication of the problem itself, a factor which has been revealed to be complex and multi-dimensional” (p. 282).

Service learning, as form of experiential learning, which entail students and community members together attending to community issues of concern. These issues provide context for academically rigorous assignments, connecting community experience with specific teaching and learning goals. Service learning (SL) is labelled by many alternatives, such as “community-engagement, community-pedagogy, community-knowledge exchange and community-based learning” (McDonald and Ogden-Barnes, 2013: 283). The essence of SL involves students volunteering and applying time, intellect, skills and abilities, as part of their curriculum, towards community advancement. SL may be subject or discipline specific or integrate multiple disciplines in pursuing an educational institution’s community engagement vision and goals. The implementation of effective SL or community engagement (CE) initiatives entail significant resource implications, and may result in real-world versus academic-world contradictions, caution McDonald and Ogden-Barnes (2013: 283).

McDonald and Ogden-Barnes (2013: 290) present the following recommendations with regard to the PBL-SL/CE interface:

• Consider [the] resource implications early and dedicate a working group to design, market and project manage the event
• Position the event against the institution’s community engagement agenda to demonstrate relevance and build internal rapport
• Secure senior management ownership/buy in
• Create a distinct brand, theme and set of promotional resources for the event that is relevant and appealing to both students and stakeholders
• Discuss and manage stakeholder expectations in relation to the problem or challenge[s] identified
• Encourage inter-disciplinary participation via inter-school promotion
• Actively communicate the benefits of participation to all parties: students, faculty, stakeholders
• Provide in situ support to help overcome any learning hurdles
• Ensure strong dialogue between students and organizations over the duration of the event to ensure that the team’s thinking and ideas remains on track

McDonald, S. & Ogden-Barnes, S. (2013). Problem-based service learning with a heart: Organizational and student expectations and experiences in a postgraduate not-for-profit workshop event. Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 14(4), 281-293. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/APJCE_14_4_281_293.pdf

An Indigenous community-based work-integrated learning model

Access to community-based learning for Indigenous students is presented by Cameron and Rexe (2022) as both feasible and successful. They portray a Canadian case study, derived from an Indigenous storytelling approach of witnessing, and introduce an Indigenous work-integrated learning conceptual model. The model is based on a perspective of the medicine wheel, with the student at the centre, surrounded by the community, training providers, funders, and industry as four quadrants. The model facilitates learning that is grounded in culture and Indigenous ways of knowing, doing, and being. The model is based on the medicine wheel because of one of the author’s sense making of the components of success.

The medicine wheel is essentially a circular symbol, broken into four quadrants of different colours, most often yellow, red, black, and white, explain Tribal Trade (n.d.). Cameron and Rexe (2022) point out that there are a variety and diversity of medicine wheel teachings and representations inspired by the stories, values, and beliefs of different nations. As metaphor, the medicine wheel emphasizes interconnectedness and interrelatedness of all things. Tribal Trade (n.d.). Indicate that various attributes assigned to the four quadrants and may, for example, include the four directions, the four states of being, the four sacred medicines, the four seasons, the four elements, the four stages of life.

Indigenous community-based work-integrated learning (WIL) model, figure 1 below, depicts how the student in the focal point, thus merging Western and Indigenous ways of being and doing. A key ingredient of the Canadian Indigenous community and economic development “is fostering economic self-sufficiency and socio-economic equality” and “inclusive of Indigenous culture and community” (p. 204). A priority is the increased access to post-secondary education and training in skilled trades. Indigenous peoples were as a result of colonization subjected to systemic barriers of access to various forms of post-secondary education, participation therein and attainment. Financial constraints and geographic non-proximity exacerbate the situation. Increased attention to culturally responsive teaching practices, inclusion of Indigenous knowledges, the use of Indigenous pedagogy, and land- or community-based education are furthermore of significance. Community-based opportunities do reduce barriers, meet the needs of Indigenous learners, and provide access at rural and remote areas, enabling individuals to learn within their community. It is said that quality community-based training is made feasible through intentional community engagement. Of significant importance is the development of relationships that are reciprocal, reflect mutual respect, where authority is shared, and goals, objectives and outcomes co-created (p. 205).

A significant finding conveyed by Cameron and Rexe (2022: 205-6) is that both employers and training providers that “provide both ‘pastoral’ (meaning guidance, social, and counseling support) and academic support” are more likely to accomplish increased completion rates. The use of ethnographic methods, Lave and Wenger’s legitimate peripheral participation, as well as Billett’s situated learning are further, among others, mentioned.

The authors conclude that the medicine wheel can be used as a teaching tool in programme design and for supporting student success. It is believed that the use would result in strong high-quality community-based partnerships. Reading of the source article is strongly recommended.

Cameron, M. & Rexe, D. (2022). Community-based access to apprenticeship: An Indigenous work-integrated learning model. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 23(2), 203-218. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_23_2_203_218.pdf.

Tribal Trade. (n.d.) The indigenous medicine wheel, native medicine wheel explained. Electronically accessible from https://us.tribaltradeco.com/blogs/medicine-wheel/medicine-wheel-teachings-native-medicine-wheel-system-explained

What is the medicine wheel? (2020). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S7nb4rJ_N14

Recommendations towards guiding the development of strategic Indigenous WIL initiatives

Nielsen, Livernoche and Ramji (2022) analysed work-integrated learning (WIL) literature specific to Indigenous students. They found significant disparities in access, retention, and success pertaining WIL programmes, as well as barriers and unrealised opportunities to expand and transform WIL practices. The ‘UVic Co-op and Career Services’[1], of the University of Victoria, in Canada, developed[2] in partnership with institutions from across British Columbia, and with support of the ‘Association for Co-operative Education and Work-Integrated Learning’[3] (ACE-WIL) BC/Yukon, publicly-accessible, through the Indigenous WIL Resource Hub[4] (IRH), resources towards strategic Indigenous WIL initiatives.

Nielsen et al. (2022: 147-150) could not derive from the international body of scholarly knowledge both clear and actionable directives, or strategic approaches towards creating more indigenously inclusive participative, culturally relevant, equitable, and accessible WIL programmes. However, the literature provided a better understanding of the process through which practitioners might support Indigenous student success. They offer ten recommendations to this end:

1. Be continuously guided by, and accountable to, Indigenous participants, collaborators, and advisors

The Latin slogan ‘Nihil de nobis, sine nobis’, meaning ‘nothing about us without us’ conveys the notion that strategies and policies should not be decided without the full and direct reciprocal and continuous participation of the members of the group/s that might be affected or that are involved. Direction should be taken from Indigenous leaders, accountability exercised and where appropriate compensation provided. The aim to build together supportive and respectful relationships.

2. Invest in Indigenous community-building on campuses and within work-integrated learning networks

Institutional, as well as Indigenous leadership support, for community initiatives is emphasised. The creation of “spaces where Indigenous WIL students feel welcome and respected in bringing their whole selves to environments in higher education and work” (Nielsen et al. 2022: 148) is important.

3. Collaborate with Indigenous communities and students to develop new work-integrated learning placements

Placement coordinators must engage, ask rather than making assumptions, and not impose institutional goals on Indigenous communities.

4. Build flexibility into work-integrated learning programmes and placements

It is very important to take into consideration the potential social and financial barriers with regard to Indigenous and rural student participation. Flexibility is emphasised in providing for part-time and remotely accessible placements. Personalisation of WIL by allowing students to present own learning plans and goals, based on own definitions of success, is encouraged.

5. Increase financial support for indigenous work-integrated learning students

Several financial barriers are frequently experienced by Indigenous students. One such is having to relocate for WIL opportunities and working for less or no pay. Compensation and financial support is deemed necessary. The terms of funding packages at times end before completion of the prerequisite WIL of qualifications, yet living expenses continue.

6. Create awareness of work-integrated learning programs and opportunities

Publishing of success stories and distribution of information about Indigenous WIL opportunities can be done through posters, video interviews, blogs, social media, pamphlets, etc.

7. Expand indigenous counselling and advising services

Mentoring and knowledgeable, sensitive academic advisors are strongly encouraged.

8. Work with hiring partners in decolonizing and indigenizing practices

WIL coordinators should sensitise employers and placement partners to create equitable workplaces that would recognise the diverse experiences and contributions of Indigenous students and accommodating their needs. This can be done by creating resources, such as short informational videos and pamphlets, and through workshops addressing what decolonized and Indigenised hiring and workplace practices entail. Employers may further be encouraged to provide flexibility by accommodating the needs of remotely located students, as well as those with dependents and care obligations.

9. Respond to the needs and concerns of indigenous students navigating work-integrated learning hiring processes

Nielsen et al. (2022: 149) encourage the recognition of “the knowledge and agency of” Indigenous students by taking “active steps to keep lines of communication open with students so to facilitate relationship-building and so to remain responsive to changing student concerns”.

10. Provide specialized training for work-integrated learning staff and human resources professionals

Gatekeepers to WIL programmes and placements, such as WIL coordinators and human resources professionals, should challenge discriminatory procedures and systems; as well as offer anti-racism, unconscious bias, cultural intelligence, and Indigenous cultural sensitivity training.

The recommendations above informed and guided the creation of the Indigenous WIL Resource Hub (IRH). Good practice “must be informed and carried out through long-term and close partnerships with local communities and stakeholders” say Nielsen et al. (2022: 147). They emphasise that none of the recommendations must be perceived as short-term projects, nor regarded as free standing. On the contrary, a holistic approach is required, “as well as sustainable, long-term timelines, commitments, and partnerships” say Nielsen et al. (2022: 150).

Nielsen, J., Livernoche, R. & Ramji, K. (2022). The Indigenous Work-integrated Learning Resource Hub: A needs-based approach to addressing barriers and opportunities for Indigenous students. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 23(2), 139-152. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_23_2_139_152.pdf

[1] https://www.uvic.ca/coop/contact-us/co-op-and-career-services/index.php

[2] https://www.uvic.ca/coop/contact-us/co-op-and-career-services/announcements/2022-07-indigenous-resource-hub.php

[3] https://acewilbc.ca/

[4] https://acewilbc.ca/projects/indigenous-wil-resource-hub/

A community is required for workplace-based learning (‘it takes a community to offer’)

‘It Takes a Village’ by Jane Cowen-Fletcher (1994) is a colourfully illustrated story that portrays a proverb attributed to West Africa, namely ‘it takes a village to raise a child’.

Yemi's mother asks her to care for her younger brother and the girl is delighted at the prospect of taking on a grown-up task. The three of them set out to the village market [in Benin, West Africa], where Mama will sell mangoes. Yemi soon loses Kokou, but instead of the terrible things she imagines happening to him, the toddler is lovingly cared for by all of the adults he meets-he is fed, given something to drink, played with, and allowed to nap. Yemi discovers that caring neighbours have been watching them both all along.

The proverb ‘it takes a village’ means an entire community of people is needed to interact positively with children for those children to grow up in a safe and healthy environment. The origins of the proverb has been researched, but not pinpointed. It is believed to embody the spirit of several African cultures, for example (Wikipedia):

• In Lunyoro (Bunyoro) there is a proverb that says “Omwana takulila nju emoi,” whose literal translation is “A child does not grow up only in a single home.”
• In Kihaya (Bahaya) there is a saying, “Omwana taba womoi,” which translates as “A child belongs not to one parent or home.”
• Kijita (Wajita) has the proverb, “Omwana ni wa bhone,” meaning regardless of a child's biological parents, its upbringing belongs to the community.
• In Swahili, the proverb “Asiye funzwa na mamae hufunzwa na ulimwengu” means roughly the same: "Whomsoever is not taught by the mother will be taught with the world."

The notion ‘it takes a village’ has subsequently been adopted by several authors, applied to a multitude of scenarios, and other books pubished. The definition of work-integrated learning (WIL) of the Canadian body for Co-operative Education and Work-integrated Learning (CEWIL) cited by Nielsen, Livernoche and Ramji (2022: 139) accurately captures the essence of workplace-based learning (WPBL, as form of WIL). CEWIL defines WIL as “a model and process of curricular experiential education which formally and intentionally integrates a student's academic studies within a workplace or practice setting. WIL experiences include an engaged partnership of at least: an academic institution, a host organization and a student”. The origins of WIL (and cooperative education) emphasised the close collaboration of academic institutions with the relevant community of practice, within the relevant industry that is involved, with regard to the necessary workplace experiences that form part of the curriculum. In addition, workplace mentoring by experienced practitioners, play a significant role in WPBL.

The Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework (HEQSF) of the Department of Higher Education and Training (South African Government, 2014), which indicates that the incorporation of work-integrated learning (WIL) into the curriculum is characteristic of vocational and professionally-oriented qualifications. The HEQSF, §35 (p. 17, emphases added) states that where the WIL component “takes the form of workplace-based learning, it is the responsibility of institutions that offer programmes requiring credits for such learning to place students into appropriate workplaces” and add that “such workplace-based learning must be appropriately structured, properly supervised and assessed”.

However, work-integrated learning need not necessary involve actual work. The HEQSF differentiates, in §34 (p. 17), various forms of work-integrated learning (WIL), namely:

• simulated learning [also known as simulated work experiences (SWEs)]
• work-directed theoretical learning [WDTL]
• problem-based learning [PBL]
• project-based learning [PjBL]
• workplace-based learning [WPBL] — Three Council on Higher Education publications (CHE: 2004a, 2004b & 2014) provide criteria with regard to work-based learning (WBL)

The South African Council on Higher Education, as independent statutory body and Quality Council for Higher Education (CHE: n.d.), published (CHE: 2011) a ‘Good Practice Guide’ towards work-integrated learning which deliberated the various modes mentioned above. The CHE (2014, Criterion 15, emphases added) recognises that ‘it takes a village’, by stating that “appropriate arrangements will be needed for placement, mentoring and supervision” and reiterates the “coordination of work-based learning must be done effectively, including adequate infrastructure, effective communication, recording of progress made, monitoring and mentoring”, plus the following:

• Learning agreements or contracts implemented through which the student, the higher education institution, the employer (workplace-based learning provider) and mentor negotiate, approve, adhere to agreed roles and responsibilities, and assess the objectives and outcomes of the learning process
• Regular and effective communication taking place and good working relations are maintained between the institution, students, mentors and employers involved
• System (both at the institution and at the place of workplace-based learning in operation to regularly and systematically monitor and record the progress of each student’s learning experience
• Mentoring system that enables each student to recognise his/her strengths and weaknesses, to develop existing and new abilities, and to gain knowledge of work practices

Nielsen et al. (2022: 139-140) indicate “a range of WIL programs: co-operative education (co-op), internships, entrepreneurships, apprenticeships, service learning, applied research projects, mandatory professional practicum/clinical placement, field placement, and work experience”; and add that “strategic WIL placements in partnership with Indigenous groups also offer opportunities for capacity-building, cultural revitalization, and community development”.

CHE (Council on Higher Education)

Cowen-Fletcher, J. (1994). It Takes a Village. Scholastic Press. [Information about accessible from https://janecowen-fletcher.com/it-takes-a-village]

Council on Higher Education (n.d.) Legislative and policy mandate. Electronically accessible from https://www.che.ac.za/about-us/legislative-and-policy-mandate

Council on Higher Education (2004a). Higher Education Quality Committee. Criteria for Programme Accreditation. Electronically accessible from https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/che2020-c5efd.appspot.com/o/website%2Fyxqlkgy7gwo1.pdf?alt=media&token=c1ea5d6e-2e05-463d-9f2b-bbf92d4b402b

Council on Higher Education (2004b). Higher Education Quality Committee. Criteria for Institutional Audits. Electronically accessible from https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/che2020-c5efd.appspot.com/o/website%2Fjh3xgy9ub11.pdf?alt=media&token=aa1b8117-5414-4e70-a363-50dc924a7d42

Council on Higher Education (2011). Work-Integrated Learning: Good Practice Guide. HE Monitor No. 12, August 2011. Pretoria: IeCommunications. Electronically accessible from https://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/Higher_Education_Monitor_12.pdf

Council on Higher Education (2014). Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Programme Accreditation Criteria, pp. 81 – 107. In Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide. Electronically accessible from https://www.saide.org.za/documents/CHE_-_Distance_Higher_Education.pdf

Nielsen, J., Livernoche, R. & Ramji, K. (2022). The Indigenous Work-integrated Learning Resource Hub: A needs-based approach to addressing barriers and opportunities for Indigenous students. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 23(2), 139-152. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_23_2_139_152.pdf

South African Government (2014), Department of Higher Education and Training, Government Notice No 819. Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework. Government Gazette No. 38116, 17 October 2014. Electronically accessible from https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201410/38116gon819.pdf

Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/It_takes_a_village

‘Moving the needle’, through pursuing learning opportunities when disasters happen

The use of the phrase “proactively ‘move the needle’ toward”, by Heinz et al. (2021: 2), intrigued me. It is a powerful idiom, or metaphor, meaning “to cause a noticeable change in something. The imagery refers to the pointer (‘needle’) on a measuring instrument, which moves to indicate the level that has been reached” (Farlex Dictionary of Idioms). Synonyms for ‘move the needle’ include phrases with similar meaning, such as: to ‘make an impression’, or to ‘alter the situation’, or to ‘significantly change the course’, or to ‘make a noticeable difference’, or to ‘shift/turn/transform a situation’, or to ‘make a big difference’, or to ‘let the genie out of the bottle’ (Power Thesaurus).

Disasters, whether natural or human-made, disrupt the lives of people. Often post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and related problems develop as result of the impact of disasters. Disaster relief initiatives do offer significant community service and learning opportunities. The goal of intervention generally is to prevent a lasting impact of “community trauma and proactively ‘move the needle’ toward resilience” say Heinz et al. (2021: 2). The aftermath of wildfires, for example, present learning opportunities with regard to “mental health resources and services for personal recovery and long-term community resilience building”, and “mind–body yoga program and training in skills for psychological recovery (SPR)”.

A reflection on the role of public libraries before, during, and after Hurricane Michael in Florida, in 2018, revealed the reliance of vulnerable rural communities on public librarians for catastrophic weather support, say Mardis et al. (2021). However, disaster policies tend to be incomplete, outdated, or non-existing. With the frequency, severity, and variety of disasters increasing substantially; small public libraries often “serve as shelters, distribution points, and ad hoc government offices”, say Mardis et al. (2021: 769). The public librarians are often designated first responders and fulfilling a variety of roles such as “institutional supporter, collection manager, information disseminator, internal planner, community catalyst, government partner, educator, trainer, and information community builder”. It is recognised that “public librarians are uniquely positioned as key community stakeholders who assist communities to prepare for, respond to, and recover from disasters”, however, small rural public libraries are often ill equipped, say Mardis et al. (2021: 770).

Universities could ‘move the needle’ by having a community engagement disaster event plan ready, which includes experiential learning opportunities students. A range of potential outcomes could be identified. The preparation before, as well as reflection during and after formulated. The evidence requirements of learning, and the assessment criteria formulated. Not only would students benefit from learning, but also communities from the support rendered, and the university would gain.

Although disasters come in various forms of intensity, impact, and duration; the pattern of handling is similar, “beginning with preparation and planning for a possible event, then responding once the event occurs, followed by recovering from the event, while taking ongoing measures to mitigate the impact of recurrences” say Bland and McLain (2021: 10). Some come with advance warning, enabling alerts, whereas others arise with no warning. They categorised tragedies into four types, namely natural disasters, human-initiated tragedies, operational tragedies, and borderless tragedies.

Bland, R & McLain, L.F. (Jr). (2021). Managing through tragedies. Public Management, January, 10-15. International City/County Management Association (ICMA). Electronically accessible from https://icma.org/articles/pm-magazine/managing-through-tragedies

Farlex Dictionary of Idioms. https://idioms.thefreedictionary.com/moved+the+needle

Heinz, A. J., Wiltsey-Stirman, S., Sharin, T., Loskot, T., Mason, D., Jaworski, B. K., & McGovern, M. (2021). Rising from the ashes by expanding access to community care after disaster: an origin story of the wildfire mental health collaborative and preliminary findings. Psychological Services. Electronically accessible from. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ser0000553

Mardis, M.A., Jones, F.R., Tenney, C.S., & Leonarczyk, Z. (2021). Category 4: Constructing knowledge about public librarians’ roles in natural disasters: A heuristic inquiry into community resiliency in Florida’s Hurricane Michael. Library Trends, 69(4), 768-789. Johns Hopkins University Press. Electronically accessible from doi:10.1353/lib.2020.0046.

Power Thesaurus. https://www.powerthesaurus.org/move_the_needle/synonyms

Students deriving learning opportunities by responding to natural disasters

Universities often struggle to secure sufficient workplace learning opportunities. Disasters, however, may offer suitable learning opportunities. This post presents ‘prompt-based journaling’ as means of facilitation of learning.

“Each year, millions of people around the world are affected by natural disasters” say Buschlen, Warner and Goffnett (2015: 33). Often universities recognise both the service learning and development of responsible citizenship opportunities involved for students, through relief community engagements, to among others, implement theoretical concepts learned. Major events such as tornados, hurricanes, tsunamis, floods, earthquakes, fires, heat waves, droughts, epidemics, pandemics, diseases, and volcanic eruptions; all require substantial humanitarian logistics relief in order to alleviate suffering and reintroduce supply. “Climate change and environmental degradation, political instability, and chronic poverty and inequality are significant drivers of forced displacement” of people, say Wessells and Kostelny (2021: 225). There is an “increased global awareness of the need for mental health and psychosocial support amidst disasters” they state, and draw attention to Hippocrates ‘Do No Harm’ principle issues such as “poor coordination, the monetization of aid, excessive targeting of aid, the imposition of Western modes of psychiatric and medicalized support, too little attention to capacity building and sustainability, and the marginalization of collective self-help and indigenous, cultural and social supports”.

Often large numbers of people are subjected to traumatic events before, during, and after disasters, with result that trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) become prevalent. Forcibly displaced people furthermore often face myriad social, cultural, and everyday distresses as result of weakened or shattered social support and controls. Apart from lack of basic necessities such as food, health care, or shelter; there are family separation, ongoing insecurity and lack of protection, inability to engage in cultural or religious practices, sexual exploitation and abuse, trafficking, recruitment into armed forces or groups, etc.

Prompt-based journaling could be used as means of facilitating learning. Buschlen, Warner and Goffnett (2015: 40) recommend that journal prompts are written in advance and given in sealed envelopes to participanting students, taped inside the cover of a blank notebook. They made use of three prompts, each in a separate envelope, with specific instructions when to open, namely before travelling to the disaster site; during the relief work while on site; and 30 days after the experience; where after journals are completed and returned. Because of the emotional and reflective nature of the data, participating students may request the return of their journal after transcription.

Buschlen, Warner and Goffnett (2015: 36) point out that the ‘3 Rs’, reality, reflection, and reciprocity are essential design elements of service learning, where students learn “from a situation while meeting other process or stakeholder needs”. A natural disaster (reality) would provoke students to engage, “and their personal reflections can ultimately transform into permanent knowledge and skill”. Transformational learning is derived because “Reflections on the service experience expand knowledge to achieve deeper learning”.

Buschlen, E., Warner, C. & Goffnett, S. (2015). Leadership education and service: Exploring transformational learning following a tornado. Journal of Leadership Education, 14(1), 33-54. https://journalofleadershiped.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/14_1_buschlen.pdf

Wessells, M. & Kostelny, K. (2021). Do no harm issues in psychosocial support: Post-tsunami practitioner learning in Sri Lanka. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 12(3), 225–233. https://doi.org/10.1037/aap0000191

Beyond ‘panic-gogy’ to adoption of innovative WIL pedagogies and practices

The “COVID-19 pandemic has provided a sudden and significant driver for rapid change and adoption of innovative online WIL pedagogies and practices” say Dean and Campbell (2021: 355). They argue for moving beyond the initial ‘panic-gogy’ to quality, innovative, and sustainable non-placement models of WIL. ‘Panic-gogy’ is a tongue-in-cheek term coined for the transitional online pedagogies pursued during the COVID-19 pandemic. Baker (2020: 1) quoted Morris who says “the term being batted about on Twitter … referring to this idea of just grasping at straws, trying to figure out what you could possibly do … suddenly forced to go online and experiencing that kind of panic”. Educators had been seeking pedagogies to bridge the gap, to retain some kind of normality, a pedagogy of resilience, of kindness, very flexible and human-centred.

Dean and Campbell (2021) indicate that the disruptions caused by COVID-19, accelerated many emerging changes with the required rapid move to online and/or distance learning models. The “value of alternative forms of work-integrated learning (WIL), in spaces other than physical workplaces, has been realized“, they observe. After the initial state of ‘panic-gogy’, with rife experimentation, purposeful design of ‘non-placement work-integrated learning’ (NPWIL) now requires attention. Experiences shown that different models and approaches can provide authenticity of work practices.

The ways of working, as well as where work is undertaken, are evolving. “Work is no longer simply completed within the confines of a bounded office and constraints of time periods”, observe Dean and Campbell (2021: 355); with for example, “remote work settings, fluid time constraints and continuous connectivity” becoming common practice. However, there is not consistency across the economy with regard to the changing nature of work. Changes tend to be industry and sector specific, as well as piece-meal, often driven by organisational specific goals.

Dean and Campbell (2021: 357) postulate that “with both the constructs of work and learning evolving rapidly as a consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic it is an inevitability that WIL, which connects these two worlds, also has to transform”. They remark that over the past two decades WIL models have been steadily experiencing innovation and a range of alternative models of WIL have emerged. Furthermore, as result of the changing world of work graduates needed to develop diverse and transferable skills.

Dean and Campbell (2021: 357) mention WIL models such as micro-placements, hackathons, competitions and events; including models beyond workplace-based experiences or requiring extensive time in workplaces, such as engaging students through short, authentic activities; and partnering with, or creating small-to-medium enterprises (SMEs) to develop entrepreneurial skills. They observe that the notion of the building of SMEs spurred the development of start-ups, consultations and incubators. WIL models further are increasingly multi-disciplinary within industry contexts, as well as engaging students from across disciplinary areas through interdisciplinary WIL. The location of WIL is further broadened beyond local contexts, with global mobility. Some WIL models are moving beyond physical constraints, by using technological platforms, online projects, virtual placements and various forms of online simulations.

Challenges such as teaching to large cohorts, resource limitations or scalability, and needing to provide access to all students, emphasise the need for one-to-many WIL models (i.e. replacing the one workplace supervisor or mentor guiding the work of one student or small group of students, “with multiple staff across an organisation working with, guiding and coaching large cohorts of students”), say Dean and Campbell (2021: 357). An increased agile curriculum, which allow for increased variability in student experiences, is required. Hopefully, such shorter, less resource intensive WIL models, would result in increased willingness of industry and also community, to partner with higher education institutions.

The COVID-19 pandemic induced ‘pivot online’ may, ponder Dean and Campbell (2021), be the catalyst to move towards more inclusive WIL approaches, such as opportunities for students in regional and rural settings; bespoke activities or partnership experiences, and/or scaling WIL through novel, collaborative, virtual platforms. Higher Education institutions “need to enquire into the needs of industry and community and explore how we can work together, think outside-the-box, and design authentic experiences for student cohorts” say Dean and Campbell (2021: 358). “Placements are not the only solution to authentic work practice when work practice itself continues to shift and is enabled by technology, they argue (p. 360).

Dean, B.A. & Campbell, M. (2021). Reshaping work-integrated learning in a post-COVID-19 world of work. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 21(4), 355-364. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_21_4_355_364.pdf

Baker, K.J. (2020). Panic-gogy: A Conversation With Sean Michael Morris. The National Teaching& Learning Forum, 29(4), 1-3. Electronically accessible from https://doi.org/10.1002/ntlf.30239

What competences; which experiences; and feasibility?

For teaching and learning, the central—“constituting something from which other related things proceed or upon which they depend”—issue, is the expected/stated outcomes (such as knowledge, skills, and attitudes), and/or competencies.

Once the expected outcomes and/or competencies are known, careful consideration must be given to which learning experiences are most likely to accomplish those; and the feasibility of providing such.

Certain learning is best acquired (or accomplished) through contextual experience/s, application, and reflection. A number of conditions are of significance pertaining contextual experiences, such as:

• The degree of authenticity (or genuineness) for learning that is provided
• The degree of fidelity (or proximity) with regard to reality
• The extent of interactivity (and immersivity) made feasible

The extent to which the occupational-field/the profession/the community-of-practice/vocational representatives were involved in determining the learning outcomes; and in particular the expression of willingness to support the teaching, by providing real-life learning opportunities, is a major deciding factor. Without adequate support, and the provision of access to contextual learning experiences, the options are reduced; and workplace-learning placements become a substantial challenge.

Workplace/clinical-field/professional/vocational realities, however, do not always permit actual exposure. This could be due to for example security/confidentiality/safety/sensitivity. In such circumstances, the realities could be simulated in a variety of ways in order to provide alternative experiences with the objective of achieving the stated learning outcomes.

The aforesaid highlight some of the teaching-design considerations, however, there are many other issues to consider, and a range of options and possibilities. Some of the potential modes of teaching include:

• Work-integrated/workplace/work-based learning, clinical training/professional practice/placement
• Project- and problem-based learning, work-based project, and live projects
• Case-based learning, case studies, case methods, life course/experience, and story telling
• Studio-based learning, studio-work, studios, and problem solving
• Service learning, community engagement, and role plays
• Virtual learning environments, virtual reality, and a range of potential simulations
• Non-placement work-integrated learning
• Work-directed theoretical learning, and projects

A comprehensive framework for assuring the quality of work-integrated learning

Much emphasis is placed on the notion of ‘quality’, on quality assurance measures and initiatives, and on improvement plans (or frameworks), state McRae, Pretti and Church (2019: 1-2). Quality could be described as a desired end-state, a striving for excellence.

There are a number of frameworks of quality standards deemed relevant:

• Smith’s (2012) framework for evaluation of the work-integrated learning (WIL) curriculum proposes six measures of specific domains, namely authenticity, integrated learning support, alignment, supervisor access, and induction (or preparation processes)
• The Council on Higher Education (2014) criteria for the coordination of work-based learning programmes presented by distance higher education institutions.
• The McRae, Pretti and Church (2019) triple-A star (AAA★) framework below, comprising five main sections, namely (1) the foundation, concepts, terminology and five stakeholder groups (students, host organisations/employers, the educators, academic institutions, and governments—in each of the stakeholder groups there are potentially “advocates”, which are bodies representing the interests of and/or supporting the group); (2) the participation aims of each of the stakeholders; (3) the actions by each of the stakeholders that is critical for quality; (4) the expected achievements (or outcomes, impacts, measures, and key performance indicators) for each of the stakeholders; and (5) finally a synthesis of four sections, as well as an outline of a continuous improvement process.

Figure: Triple-A star (AAA★) framework (McRae, Pretti & Church, 2019: 1)

Whereas the Council on Higher Education (2014) reiterates the 2004 accreditation criteria; Smith (2012: 250) presents a new evaluation framework which structurally and conceptually divides the WIL curriculum into six domains or constructs:

1. Authenticity
2. Alignment of teaching and learning activities with integrative learning objectives (Align-TLA)
3. Alignment of assessment with integrative learning objectives (Align-Asst)
4. Integrated Learning Support (across the two university and workplace sites) (ILS)
5. Supervisor Access (Sup. Access)
6. Induction and Preparation Processes (IPP)

The Council on Higher Education (2014) furthermore persists with the use of the term work-based learning (and the coordination thereof), whereas Smith (2012: 250) asserts that authenticity “is at the heart of all workplace-situated learning”. Smith (2012: 247) asserts that work-integrated learning (WIL) entails students spending time “in professional, work or other practice settings relevant to their degrees of study and to their occupational futures”; but points out that “WIL is not the same as work experience or work-based learning, neither of which require students to specifically learn, apply or integrate canonical disciplinary knowledge”. Both physical authenticity (providing students with real work environments) and cognitive authenticity (where students personally engage in, encounter, and participate in meaningful and relevant learning within the specified disciplinary framework) of curricula are deemed important. The authenticity is assessed with regard to what extent the environment would expose students to the real work settings and to which students can observe, interact and respond to that particular context. Projects should be meaningful and consequential. Freestone, Williams, Thompson and Trembath (2007) illustrate the application of a variant of the Course Experience Questionnaire (CEQ), namely the Work Experience Questionnaire (WEQ), as measure of the workplace learning experiences of students. The WEQ had been designed to explore the perceptions of students about their learning environment. The WEQ requires students to respond on a conventional five-point scale, ranging from strong disagreement (1), through to strong agreement/concurrence (5), with the intermediate points not labelled. The dimensions of ‘clear goals’ and ‘support for learning’ have been found to correlate highly with student learning. The WEQ questionnaire consisting of 33 items (questions), with items bundled into scales, namely:

• Clear Goals Scale (3 items)
• Support for Learning Scale (5 items)
• Generic Skills Scale (5 items)
• Menial Tasks Scale (3 items)
• Overall Satisfaction (1 item)
• Ungrouped individual questions (7 items)
• Additional Generic Skills (9 items).

Conceptually, there is a substantial difference between what is deemed quality. Whereas the Council on Higher Education (2014) focusses on various elements of coordination; Smith (2012) focusses on what constitutes good teaching and learning. He (p. 248) argues that WIL “focuses attention on the integration of discipline learning and workplace practice or application”. Smith (2012: 251) advances the “notion of the constructive alignment of learning objectives with teaching and learning activities (TLAs) and assessments”. He alludes to the fact that during WIL placements students are not at their host universities, but at workplaces, and therefore urges curriculum design deliberately integrated support services in the delivery, in order to improve the individual learning by alleviating stress. This up with the management of pedagogical aspects through induction and preparing students, both pedagogically and practically. Smith (2012: 252) recognises that such present an extra burden on academics, which is compounded by the need for maintaining contact “between the academic convenor (or appropriate others – e.g. tutors) and students in situ” (notion of supervisor access).

McRae, Pretti and Church (2019: 7) assert that “WIL is a collaborative endeavour and the perspectives of multiple stakeholders need to be incorporated to ensure the quality of WIL outcomes” and elaborate that “each of these stakeholders has a connection to quality WIL as described by the key aspects identified by P.E.A.R.”:

• P for pedagogy — the curriculum needs to be designed “to allow students and host organizations to make the most of the experience and students need to engage with the curriculum”
• E for experience — “educators need to verify that the opportunity aligns with the educational goals of the course/program, host organizations need to provide opportunities for meaningful and substantial contributions, and WIL students need to fully engage with the host organization to make the experience valuable for both themselves and the organization”
• A for assessment — “designed by the educator with input from the student and host organization”
• R for reflection — the educator must provide prompts “to facilitate reflection on the experience for the student and the host organization ensuring maximum learning gains from the experience”

McRae, Pretti and Church (2019: 4-5) cites the Canadian national association for Co-operative and Work-Integrated Learning (CEWIL) definition of work-integrated learning (WIL), namely “a model and process of curricular experiential education which formally and intentionally integrates a student’s academic studies within a workplace or practice setting. WIL experiences include an engaged partnership of at least: an academic institution, a host organization, and a student. WIL can occur at the course or program level and includes the development of learning outcomes related to employability, personal agency, and life-long learning”. They further differentiate nine different models or forms of curricular WIL that exist in many post-secondary institutional contexts, namely:

• Apprenticeship
• Co-operative Education (co-op alternating and co-op internship models)
• Internship
• Entrepreneurship
• Service Learning
• Applied Research Projects
• Mandatory Professional Practicum/Clinical Placement
• Field Placement
• Work Experience

McRae, Pretti and Church (2019: 17) conclude that a quality framework for work-integrated learning is a critical, because each stakeholder has finite resources that they can be directed towards WIL, and each need to be intentional in how to allocate available resources. Many stakeholders support the positive outcomes of WIL in higher education as well as expansion, however, the outcomes are not guaranteed. Quality must remain in focus. McRae, Pretti and Church (2019: 17) suggest that through articulating the aims; accomplishing the actions; assessing the achievements of the primary stakeholders; and by using the acquired information it is possible to set a continuous improvement process in motion through quality can be assured.

References

Council on Higher Education. 2014. Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Programme Accreditation Criteria (pp 81-107), in Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide — Criterion 15, p. 104. Electronically accessible from http://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/CHE%20-%20Distance%20Higher%20Education.pdf

Freestone, R., Williams, P., Thompson, S. & Trembath, K. 2007. A quantitative approach to assessment of work-based learning outcomes: an urban planning application. Higher Education Research & Development, 26(4), December, 347–361. Electronically accessible from https://tandfonline.com/toc/cher20/26/4?nav=tocList

McRae, N.T., Pretti, J. & Church, D. 2019. Work-Integrated Learning Quality Framework. University of Waterloo, Waterloo Centre for the Advancement of Co-operative Education (WatCACE), Electronically accessible from https://uwaterloo.ca/centre-advancement-co-operative-education/research-publications/wil-quality-framework

Smith, C. 2012. Evaluating the quality of work-integrated learning curricula: a comprehensive framework. Higher Education Research & Development, 31(2), 247–262. Electronically accessible from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07294360.2011.558072

A typology and continuum of service and learning

The term service-learning dates back to 1964 to distinguish community service programmes at Oak Ridge Associated Universities explain Swan, Paterson and Bielefeldt (2014, 358). Over the two decades ending 2003, no fewer than 200 different definitions of service learning were published.

Sigmon, cited by Swan, Paterson and Bielefeldt (2014, 360), produced a typology comprising four quadrants varying the emphasis of either or both service and learning:

Furco, also cited by Swan, Paterson and Bielefeldt (2014, 360), felt it necessary to differentiate various forms or modes, such as volunteerism and community service versus field education and internships. He produced a two-dimensional continuum, namely with the focus varying from service to learning; and the beneficiary varying from the recipient of service-learning to the provider thereof.

Swan, C.; Paterson, K. and Bielefeldt, A.R. 2014. Community engagement in engineering education as a way to increase inclusiveness, 357-372. In A. Johri and B.M. Olds. 2014. Cambridge handbook of engineering education research. New York: Cambridge Press.

 

Learning through service (LTS)

The term 'learning through service' (LTS) has been added to the lexicon of ways to describe pedagogical methods which infuse academic learning with service rendering say Swan, Paterson and Bielefeldt (2014, 357).

In their view, the overarching 'umbrella' term' community engagement' (CE) includes a variety of educational models, for example service-learning, community service-learning, problem-based learning and project-based learning.

Swan, C.; Paterson, K. and Bielefeldt, A.R. 2014. Community engagement in engineering education as a way to increase inclusiveness, 357-372. In A. Johri and B.M. Olds. 2014. Cambridge handbook of engineering education research. New York: Cambridge Press.

Walking the talk of Project-based Learning and Community Service

Savage, Chen and Vanasupa (2007, 18-20) outline how a variety of projects about various aspects of engineering enriches the undergraduate engineering curriculum. They indicate how the design and construction of a solar hot water system and a water purification system meet the needs of local rural residents. This provided a service-learning element to the curriculum and affords students the opportunity how their efforts can positively impact their local community. In addition it gives students the opportunity to develop an appreciation for the role of technology in improving society.

Savage, Chen and Vanasupa (2007, 17) illustrates the goal to develop awareness within students about how technology can have an impact on society, economics and the environment through a dual tetrahedron (a solid figure having four plane faces) model.

Figure: The dual tetrahedron represents the balancing of technical knowledge, economic, environmental and social factors when developing a design solution.

Savage, R.N.; Chen, K.C. and Vanasupa, L. 2007. Integrating Project-based Learning throughout the Undergraduate Engineering Curriculum. The Journal of STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) Education: Innovations and Research, 8(3), 15-27. Electronically accessible from http://ojs.jstem.org/index.php?journal=JSTEM&page=article&op=view&path%5B%5D=1387

Project based learning (PJBL) as per the SA Council on Higher Education

The CHE’s Good Practice Guide (2011, 4) on WIL advocates the “fostering [of] university learning that is less didactic and more situated, participative, and ‘real world’ oriented”. The integration of theory and practice may occur through a varied range of approaches, such as formal or informal work placements, “action-learning, apprenticeships, cooperative education, experiential learning, inquiry learning, inter-professional learning, practicum placements, problem-based learning, project-based learning, scenario learning, service-learning, team-based learning, virtual or simulated WIL learning, work-based learning, work experience, workplace learning” (emphasis added). An underlying commonality—not restricted to placements—is the alignment of academic and workplace practices for the mutual benefit of students and workplaces.

The CHE’s Good Practice Guide (2011, 18) qualifies that “project-based learning (PJBL) involves learning through projects”. These projects could either be ‘real’ or simulated. ‘Real’ projects are undertaken in a workplace and generally involve “elements of research and the supervision by both a university teacher and workplace supervisor or mentor”. Projects “are a means of engaging students in complex, work-related issues, through which they develop and transfer skills and knowledge”. It is important to point out that “projects do not always lend themselves to ‘coverage’ of all outcomes in a curriculum. This means selecting those topics that reflect the most important ideas and concepts in the curriculum and incorporating those topics into projects.”

The application of project-based learning is discussed at the various HEQF levels, namely:

For level 5, the one-year certificate (2011, 23), it is not recommended because “literature recommends that PJBL components be approximately one semester in duration”.

For level 6, the two-year advanced certificate (2011, 24), only short focussed projects.

For level 7, the three-year diploma/Bachelor’s degree (2011, 24), “A focused project, such as a service learning project, would be appropriate at the third year level, provided that there are adequate resources for such a project – in particular a transport budget, time allocation, and formal agreements with community partners and service providers” (emphasis added).

For level 8, the four-year professional Bachelor’s degree (2011, 25), the same condition regarding adequate resources is expressed, however “formal agreements with workplaces, the provision of mentors/coaches” is mentioned. Further stated that “PJBL is recommended in the third and fourth year” because “PJBL can contribute significantly to student learning”, “when the students are more able to learn from complex situations, have near-professional level skills, and are thus able to contribute to problem solving or innovation in a workplace in a meaningful way.”

For level 9, the Master’s degree (2011, 25), the theses are generally of an applied nature, meaning PJBL research “in which an intervention or product is designed, implemented, studied, and evaluated” could be ideal.

For level 10, the Doctoral degree (2011, 25), the same applies as for level 9 but “with particular emphasis on the contribution to knowledge”.

The engagement of students in PJBL teaches such “students complex processes and procedures such as planning, managing and communicating”. However, the CHE’s Good Practice Guide (2011, 36) cautions about the alignment of this pedagogical approach that the accomplishment “requires time for both teachers and students to master the strategies necessary for successful PJBL”. The reason is that “project work involves many different types of projects within the framework of a single subject it can be demanding on staff resources”.

The CHE’s Good Practice Guide (2011, 43) regards project-based learning as ‘high stakes’ assessment, because it often counts proportionately more marks than theoretical modules. Historically students kept “logbooks or build portfolios to show their experience and the skills development”. However, “these paper-based forms of assessment are” considered “inadequate in terms of demonstrating students’ mastery of complex practice”. The CHE’s Good Practice Guide (2011, 43-44) presents an example of video-diaries used rather than paper-based assessment. It further (p. 48) points out that “clarity on the assessment process in project work is probably more important than with traditional programmes because of the demands it makes on academic staff.”

The CHE’s Good Practice Guide (2011, 54-55) point out that project-based learning “has considerable potential for advanced student learning and for solving ‘real life’ problems in workplaces.” However, it also cautions that “there are extensive resources [needed] for initiating, building and maintaining community-based partnerships in the CHE guide on Service-learning in the curriculum (2006)” for enabling students to “assist a community in need, using knowledge and skills gained in their course of study”. Similarly, is the “support of university teachers” necessary to “address a real workplace problems”. The CHE’s Good Practice Guide (2011, 54-55) differentiates the roles of the internal/academic partners and the external/professional partners with regard to project-based learning. The lecturer “takes on the role of a professional consultant”; “usually plays a significant role in addressing the workplace problem or need” and “should model professional conduct”. The “students will take on a professional identity, which is an important aspect of their development as they learn to deal with clients in a professional manner”. The “workplace partners play a major role” in identifying “a particular need or area of work that requires development and, in collaboration with the academic partners, define and shape the work so that there is a match between workplace requirements and the academic programme”.

The academia/lecturers’ role	The workplace professionals role
Assume a professional identity,   and explain issues in professionalism Act as consultants Supervise the students engaged   in the project Ensure that the students meet   regularly with their ‘clients’ Monitor the progress of the   project Assess the final product or   process, in collaboration with the professional partner	Invite students to solve an   authentic workplace problem Provide students with sufficient   orientation to the workplace and the particular problem Arrange adequate time for   students to consult with workplace supervisors or mentors Assist with the assessment of   the final product or process, in collaboration with the academic partner

The CHE’s Good Practice Guide (2011, 61) points out that the management of project-based learning requires “considerable planning, as well as relationship building with workplace partners.” It recommends formalising the partnerships with workplaces by entering into a memorandum of Understanding which clarifies the respective roles and responsibilities of academia, the workplace partners and of students, but also address health and safety issues.

The workplace may be involved with the selection of students, their orientation to the workplace in general as well as to the specific project, etc. It is important that full records are kept, including workplace and contact person details, student lists (which projects they are involved with, contact details, etc.). Data capturing and management of the database of students and workplace would probably be done by administrative staff, but should be overseen by the academic manager or university teacher who has the main responsibility for the project. PJBL involves liaising with workplaces; this might include attending meetings between students and their ‘clients’ (although this could be delegated to tutors or mentors). Students’ progress on their projects should be monitored, regular feedback given, and their work should be formally assessed, usually in collaboration with workplace partners.

The CHE’s Good Practice Guide (2011, 61) admits that “creating and managing authentic opportunities for projects in a real work context is a time consuming task and opportunities for student work placements might be limited in particular fields.” It therefore state that project-based learning is often simulated “at the university in order to enable students to experience some aspects of the workplace within an educational framework.”

Republic of South Africa. Council on Higher Education (CHE). 2011. Work-Integrated Learning: Good Practice Guide. Higher Education Monitor 12, August 2011. Pretora: IeCommunications. http://cctprojects.co.za/wbeproject/documents/WIL/Higher_Education_Monitor_12.pdf or http://digitalknowledge.cput.ac.za/handle/11189/5205

Cornell system for taking notes of real-experience learning

Deriving learning from experiences does not merely happen. A note-taking system devised at the University of Cornell, by an education professor, Walter Pauk, in the 1950s, could remarkably enhance the learning from experiences. A spiral reporter's notepad (or any of choice) works well. Space of 2-3 cm is left at the top to record the date, setting and circumstances. A line is drawn vertically, about a quarter to a third, from the left, leaving about 4-5 cms at the bottom. The column on the right serves as space to take notes of observations, explanations, facts, descriptions, etc. The column on the left use for key words, questions, etc. The space at the bottom is meant for recording a summary after the experience, for example at the end of the day.

Due to the efficiency of this method it is still being advocated; iPad templates exist for easy note taking; as well as pre-formated Cornell notepaper and guides to create a MS Word template; or PDF-format versions to print for use.

The Dr Walter Pauk Cornell system emphasises the five Rs, namely Record, Reduce, Recite, Reflect and Review.

What are experiences that combine work experiences with formal education called?

This question is posed and a range of 11 alternative names outlined, as well as six types of delivery programmes, by Gardener and Barkus (2014).

The range of alternative names developed include:

1. Work-integrated learning (WIL)
2. Work-based learning
3. Cooperative and work-integrated education (CWIE)
4. Vocational education and training
5. Career and technical education (CTE)
6. Work placement
7. Project-based learning
8. Experiential education
9. Experiential learning
10. Professional development
11. Community/civic engagement

Range of programmes designed to deliver work-education experiences:

1. Cooperative education
2. Internships
3. Externships
4. Apprenticeships
5. Practicum
6. Service learning

Strange that clinical training is not mentioned?

Gardner, P. & Bartkus, K.R. 2014. What's in a name? A reference guide to work-education experiences. Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 15(1), 37-54.

Many stories and sometimes sharing of chapters

Cooperative Work-integrated Education “should provide opportunity for [workplace] engagement
and [contextual learning] rather than relying on lectures and [workshop or laboratory experiences] from” academia (replaced ‘cross-cultural engagement and education’ with [workplace] engagement and [contextual learning]; and ‘lectures and teaching’ with lectures and [workshop or laboratory experiences], Richmond et al, 2010: 66) in my opinion.

The post-title is borrowed from the late at night words of Teacon Simeonoff, a leader from Old Harbor community—the Alutiiq, or southern coastal people of the Native peoples of Alaska—while sitting with ten other people around a campfire on a nearby island, who said: “We all have a story and sometimes we share the same chapters” (abstract Richmond et al, 2010: 63).

Richmond, L.; Di Piero, D.; Espinoza, F.; Simeonoff, T. & Faraday, M. 2010. We Shared the Same
Chapter: Collaboration, Learning, and Transformation from the 2008 Subsistence, the Environment, and Community Well-Being Native Youth Exchange in Old Harbor, Alaska Project. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, Volume 14, Number 4, pp. 63-82.

Work-integrated learning often NOT adequately engaged

Work-integrated learning is not seen as community engagement, a senior and influential colleague asserts. During the past two decades a new form of scholarship has been emerging, publishes Barker (2004, 123), namely the scholarship of engagement that entails the “broadening and deepening the public aspects of academic scholarship …[meaning] scholars are finding creative ways to communicate to public audiences, work for the public good, and, most important, generate knowledge with public participation”. Barker cites Ernest Boyer (1990) who argues that scholarship of engagement, among others, “incorporate reciprocal practices of civic engagement into the production of knowledge” (124).

Barker (2004, 125-6) remarks that “service-learning and experiential learning are two well-known practices that incorporate civic involvement”. However, scholarship of engagement goes much further. Barker (2004, 127) observes that “engaged scholars typically make a conscious effort to stress the pedagogical value of collaborating with publics instead of providing information
to or services for publics”.

Conway (2006, 134) reports that the title of the 2005 Outreach Scholarship Conference has been “Transformation through Engagement”, which conveys the notion of making a difference. Engaged scholarship is about “sharing knowledge, conveying skills, and helping others solve problems”. The role of higher education includes “the integration and application of knowledge in service to society”. Engaged scholars “work shoulder-to-shoulder with citizens to put knowledge to work in the community and integrate new ideas and technologies into practical systems”.

Conway (2006, 135) makes the point that “cooperation is not collaboration”. Scholarship of engagement is not about extending university resources; or the taking of science (or science-based
answers); to address community or public problems. Instead, it is about truly collaborative efforts, as equals, recognising that problems solving requires the blending of experiential and scientific knowledge. It is about practising participatory and action research; not dreaming up projects and then persuading a community to participate.

Conway (2006, 134) shares the example of the Oregon coastal commercial fishing industry that comprises many strong, family enterprises (a fishing community of place, but also a community of specific interest). University-based research and technologies have been extended to help address complex natural, societal, and political challenges experienced. Through a co-learner mode,
instead of academic expert, scientific knowledge contributed to solving environmental challenges.

Good work-integrated learning practice, where the workplace of individual students are carefully considered and contracting between university, organisation and student could well be examplary of scholarly engagement in community.

 

Barker, D. 2004. The scholarship of engagement: a taxonomy of five emerging practices. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, Volume 9, Number 2, 123-137.

Conway, F.D.L. 2006. Sharing knowledge, power, and respect: keys in bringing communities together to improve science, practice, and relationships. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, Volume 11, Number 1, 133-143.

Add value through partnerships between HEI and organisations

In order to harness mutual advantages, a need for more creative ways of interacting between organisations and higher education institutions (HEIs) is advocated (Barnes & Phillips 2000). Reduced state funding and increased student numbers place HEIs under strain, especially with regard to staff time. The development of working links with organisations is considered essential to ‘unlock’ professional development of staff, research opportunities and community-service scholarly activity. Partnerships may offer academics the opportunity to access new sources of finance (value for money) and in-kind support for project work, research and other scholarly initiatives. In addition collaboration with voluntary-activity groups offers avenues of opportunity for responsible HEIs.

In practical terms it means that partnerships should be complimentary and result in synergy, which would harness academic interests and add value for the community. HEI involvement in projects proposals/bids could contribute academic rigour. Collaboration with community groupings may result in voluntary input in research and acquisition of local information that is not generally available, as well as local expertise and data. Joint publishing could be mutually beneficial with regard to promoting respective objectives, raising the profile of academics and HEI access to data sets.

Collaboration may involve promoting career advancement of ‘under-employed’ minority groups through tailor-made programmes drawing from HEI counselling and guidance expertise and real-life learning in organisations. Collaboration may result in major cost-savings for organisations and a ‘ripple-effect’ in that other organisations learn about the benefits. HEIs are by definition centres of knowledge and expertise, which are constantly evolving, and which could be applied to the benefit of organisations. Collaborations may further result in jointly winning awards for achievements. Relationships may offer scope for future capacity building.

HEIs' reaching out to organisations, is vital for establishing Cooperative and Work-integrated Education (CWIE) partnership, but also an important step in order to discover other potential areas of mutual benefit.

Barnes, N. J. & Phillips P. S. 2000. Higher education partnerships: creating new value in the environmental sector. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 1 (2): 181-190.

Real-world learning opportunities help students increase their understanding

Real-world learning complement the methodological competence of students in applying problem-solving approaches, say Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010). Real-world learning affords students opportunities to critically reflect on, to negotiate and collaborate with academic supervisors and community project partners. Students get the opportunity to turn intellectual concepts and methods into personal practical ability. Learning from addressing real-world sustainability problems exposes students to “where the rubber hits the road”, according to Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010: 311). Students learn from the development of sustainability strategies and projects, within the context of real-life politics, culture, traditions, and existing processes. Real-world scenarios force students to explore and identify accountability; to hold the relevant people accountable; and to accept own accountability with respect to the real-world sustainability project agreement.

Although students are likely to develop key competencies in sustainability from real-world learning opportunities; the key competencies which students need to develop must be made known’ Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010: 313) caution that “the devil is in the details”. The design and implementation of the real-world learning determines the nature and scope of the experience. The “functional and progressive” model of integrating real-world learning into the curriculum comprises a number of loosely structured real-world learning experiences in preparation for the capstone experience. This is illustrated by Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010: 314) in Figure 1 below. The real-world learning is spread over four years. Three factors shape the nature of the learning, namely (1) the role of the instructors to design and facilitate; (2) the level of interaction of students with the partners in the community project; and (3) the different forms of collaboration. There is linear progression. Figure 2 illustrates the capstone module in more detail and Figure 3 indicates how the capstone-module option may help students develop certain key competencies but not necessary all/others.

Brundiers, K.; Wiek, A. & Redman C. L. 2010. Real-world learning opportunities in sustainability: from classroom into the real world. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 11 (4): 308-324.

Sustainability as emerging academic field challenges what is taught and how

If higher education graduates are to cope with society’s sustainability-challenges, universities must provide students with interactive, experiential, transformative, and real-world learning to suitably prepare them; say Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010). The authors undertook a synthesis of literature on sustainability education (an emerging academic field) with the view of determining how real-world learning can contribute to building key competencies in sustainability. Consensus exists that the capacity-uilding pathways of sustainability education should engage the “head, hands, and heart”.

Sustainability education is concerned with complex non-linear problems with long-term implications; that cut across economic, social, and environmental domains; not just on local but global scales; and involve high degrees of damage potential; and therefore urgency. These often manifest as a conglomerate of problems that require sophisticated “post-normal” solutions and elaborate problem-solving techniques; that challenges basic assumptions; and call for systems-thinking, anticipation, and participatory strategy-building models across established disciplines.

Key competencies in sustainability cannot be acquired by being told about sustainable development. Students need to see and work within a living learning place. They need to experience what a sustainable lifestyle means. Learning must focus on real-world problems, exposing students to corresponding real-world settings. A variety of learning models might be considered, for example project- and/or problem-based learning; service learning; and internships. However, not all real-world learning opportunities are appropriate. Some are more appropriate for extracurricular activities; whereas others do not relate well to the key features of sustainability. Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010: 311) present this “overview of key differences among dominant models of real-world learning formats”:

	Project-based learning	Service learning	Internship
Outcomes: what students learn/benefit	Collaborative problem-solving capacity	Education and teaching capacity	Professional working experience; career development
Practices: what students do	Collaborating with partners to develop solution approach	Educating people	Assisting or working on a professional project
Interaction with stakeholder	Two-way knowledge generation (co-production)	One-way knowledge transfer (students to community)	One-way knowledge transfer (employer to student and student to employer)
Integration of theory and practice	Explicit, supervised by faculty and stakeholder	Implicit, not supervised by faculty	Implicit, not supervised by faculty
Impacts on world	Systemic innovation	Support of social innovation and change	Modular innovation

Brundiers, K.; Wiek, A. & Redman C. L. 2010. Real-world learning opportunities in sustainability: from classroom into the real world. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 11 (4): 308-324.

The journal (IJSHE) is published by Emerald Group Publishing Limited in conjunction with Society of University Leaders for a Sustainable Future (ULSF).