Learning in vivo

Work-related learning (WRL), defined as learning in and at work

The period of “transition from higher education to work”, in the life of young adults, is significant in that “entrance into a new context brings its own challenges”, say Grosemans, Coertjens, and Kyndt (2020: 20). “Early-career employees are expected to develop new competences and deepen their current competences”, which “can be achieved through work-related learning” (WRL). Literature about “learning relevant to work can be conceptualized in at least two ways”, say Sambrook (2005: 102), namely “learning that occurs at the place of work and learning that is embedded in work processes”—illustrated in Figure 1 below; and therefor “the term work-related learning [WRL] encompasses all forms of learning in and at work”. Other differentiated "learning at work, for work and through work". Grosemans et al. (2020: 20) indicate that work-related learning involves both formal and informal learning activities, as well as both on and off the job learning. “Formal learning activities are those activities that are more strictly organized, often within a fixed and limited time span”, whereas “informal learning activities are typically activities that follow from” carrying out work/assigned tasks. The UK, ‘work-related learning guide’ (DCSF: 6) defines of work-related learning as a “planned activity that uses the context of work to develop knowledge, skills and understanding useful in work, including learning through the experience of work, learning about work and working practices, and learning the skills for work”.

While “work-related learning is demonstrated to be particularly important for graduates embarking on their career, as the entrance to their new job comes along with many challenges that can trigger work-related learning”, “little is known about work-related learning in the case of early-career employees”, say Grosemans et al. (2020: 20), and “the question remains as to how factors in higher education can prepare students for future work-related learning”. Three orientations are perceived as significant “antecedents of work-related learning in the transition from higher education to work”, namely learning-goal orientation, performance-approach orientation, and performance-avoidance orientation observe Grosemans et al. (2020: 20-2). It has been found that students with a high learning-goal orientation are generally focused on developing required competences and performing tasks in order to learn new things; whereas students with a high performance-approach orientation are particularly directed towards demonstrating their competences and/or comparing themselves with other; but that students with a high performance-avoidance orientation endeavour to avoid tasks of which they expect the consequences to be negative. Self-efficacy, i.e., “the ‘belief in one’s own capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments’” and “perseverance in taxing situations”, is regarded as “critical to increase preparedness for the transition to work”

Sambrook (2005: 106-7) further indicates that “a key factor supporting work-related learning is the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs)” because “the Internet (web-based) enables the delivery of computer-based training across time and distance”.

DCSF stand for United Kingdom Government, Department for Children, Schools and Families.

Grosemans, I.; Coertjens, L. & Kyndt, E. (2020). Work-related learning in the transition from higher education to work: The role of the development of self-efficacy and achievement goals. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(1), 19–42.

Sambrook, S. (2005). Factors influencing the context and process of work-related learning: synthesizing findings from two research projects. Human Resource Development International, 8(1), 101 – 119.

United Kingdom Government, Department for Children, Schools and Families. (2009). The Work-Related Learning Guide (Second Edition). https://dera.ioe.ac.uk/id/eprint/10591/7/Work-related_learning_Redacted.pdf

Key component of experiential education is reflection, not activity

Snow, Wardley, Carter and Maher (2019: 80) state that the term experiential education “is often misunderstood or misapplied through reductionist thinking to any learning that involves activity”; on the contrary, it is defined as “a pedagogical approach that encourages collective and personal critical reflection and development”. They engaged in seeking to answer questions about the feasibility of designing online experiential learning opportunities and how this can contribute to deepening professional practice in Nursing, Education, Business and Community Studies. They remark that “The key component of experiential education documented in the literature is action on the part of the student that promotes learning through reflection” (emphasis added). However, experience itself is not necessarily educative, especially when reflection is omitted. Experiential learning comprises, as per Kolb’s cycle of four stages, namely: concrete experience (CE), reflective observation (RO), abstract conceptualization (AC), and active experimentation (AE). Snow, Wardley, Carter and Maher (2019) report that collaborative activities through online synchronous and asynchronous technologies have been found to support the development of competence. They share lived experiences about four undergraduate-level professional programmes that involve experiential learning to varying degrees.

The first scenario pertains to a part-time blended learning programme from Registered Practical Nurse (RPN) to a Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BScN) degree. The RPN to BScN programme comprises theory courses delivered online and clinical (experiential) courses occurring in clinical practice settings. Each clinical module includes an online course site, which houses resources and “serves as an environment where students are required to reflect and think critically on their learning with their clinical instructor and other students”. The reflection principally through writing, with tools such as discussion boards, blogs, and course-specific email. This “blend of clinical learning with carefully designed online writing activities is a powerful combination”. Case studies and problem-based learning activities in the theory modules further serve as a form of experiential learning. The clinical or experiential, on the other hand are “enhanced through online activities and assignments that require critical thinking through reflection”.

The table below summarises the other three scenarios:

Scenario	Reflective Observation	Abstract Conceptualization	Active Experimentation	Concrete Experience
2.    Typical blended learning cycle, teacher education, science	The first lesson of each unit face-to-face, in which the previous experience deconstructed and explored and a new cycle established.	Asynchronous online activities were used to engage with theory related to learning objectives.	Each lesson design was unique to the student and specific community context.	Students did online video presenta-tions of their lessons & received feedback from their classmates.
3.    Typical learning cycle, occupational health & safety	Interactive learning based on content of module	Research paper	Discussion posts, blog entries & case studies	Community-based marketing outreach message
	Simulations and videos posted by professor with questions to address in blogs	Conceptualizing workforce-relevant knowledge related to the group topic	Reflecting, applying knowledge, and evaluating peers	Content presented online; three-tiered monitoring and measurement systems (peers, professor, and community members)
4.    Typical learning cycle, work place-ment courses	Discussion posts and a final reflective essay for each course	Developing a career plan (COMS 2101); information interview (COMS 3101)	Discussion posts, journal summaries, & self/supervisor evaluations	Placements with a community partner (100 hours for COMS 2101, 100 hours for COMS 3101)

It is the experience of the authors that “the practical realities of experiential education in higher education are challenging, and faculty interested in developing experiential learning opportunities for students must negotiate institutional policies, external regulatory bodies, and, at times, even concerns about legitimacy within their departments”.

Snow, K., Wardley, L., Carter, L. & Maher, P. 2019. Lived Experiences of Online and Experiential Learning Programs in Four Undergraduate Professional Programs. Collected Essays on Learning & Teaching: Pedagogical Innovation: Adapting Practice to Evolving Cultures, Section II, Vol. 12, p79-93. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22329/celt.v12i0.5388

Experiential learning in a distance e-learning context

Knud Illeris (2016: 201), inducted in 2006 to the ‘International Adult and Continuing Education Hall of Fame’ (2018) in the fields of continuing education and adult learning, remarks that ‘workplace learning’ and work-based learning’ taking place directly in the workplace “became popular slogans in the context of vocationally orientated education”. He indicates the paradoxical nature of this popularity in the light of historical trend that the bulk of curriculums were transferred from workplaces to formalised education. Illeris (2016: 202) points out “this has been absolutely clear: more and more schooling and less and less educational training at the workplaces”. Enterprises furthermore want education to be financed by the state. Illeris instead emphasise the need for lifelong learning during work life, with the view of continuously ‘upgrading’ the base qualifications of employees.

Many aspects evolved since the beginning of the twentieth century, when cooperative education systems and sandwich education programmes were introduced in Northern America and Europe respectively, and subsequently spread internationally. Among the many changes, there had been an explosion of e-learning, say Arthur and Raine (2016), who indicates two main reasons. First is technological advances associated with the Internet that resulted in substantial affordable educational resources, networked learning, new ways in which knowledge is imparted, etc. The second reason is the importance of knowledge for economic growth. “At a time of budget constraints …” say Arthur and Raine (2016: 144) “… efficiency drives and a continuous emphasis on optimising value-for-money, the contemporary and emerging technologies offer unique opportunities for the education sector.” The emphasis on e-learning and diminishing opportunities for workplace learning as part of the curriculum, prompt the pursuance of simulations and educational alternatives to real-life experience, in order for graduates to gain competence.

Dadze-Arthur and Raine (2016: 146) explain that “e-learning, also referred to as distance learning or online education, can be understood as learning that involves students doing all their classroom activities outside the traditional classroom, at a distance from their school or college, and supported by technology-based tools”. Unisa (2018) states that the university “is the largest open distance learning institution in Africa and the longest standing dedicated distance education university in the world”. It therefor makes sense that Unisa would favour simulations and other electronic facilitated experiential learning to actual placements of students.

Beard, Wilson and McCarter (2007: 4) remark that a limited number of underpinning theories exist with regard to e-learning, which is often “technology-led rather than theory-led”. They coined the expression E²-learning with regard to the fusion between experiential learning and e-learning. According to Baasanjav (2013: 576) the term “refers to the possibility of bringing together everyday experience and communication technologies”. Dadze-Arthur and Raine (2016: 146) simply uses experiential-electronic learning (EE-Learning), qualified as the notion of ‘experiential learning in a distance-learning environment’, which is generally to be understood as a combination of experiential learning and e-learning with the goal to create a strong, interactive learning community.

Bates (2014) responded to a colleague stating that experiential learning cannot be done online that “experiential learning is [indeed] like most design models: it is independent of the mode of delivery. What matters is how well it is done.” Bates points out that there is a range of teaching design models that embed real world contexts into learning, namely problem-based learning, case-based learning, project-based learning, inquiry-based learning, cooperative (work- or community-based) learning, and apprenticeships.

David Kolb’s cyclical theory (1984) is deemed synonymous with experiential learning. He synthesised three earlier models of learning through direct experience, namely the models of Dewey (1938), Lewin (1946) and Piaget (1972). Kolb argues that concrete real-life experiences (CE) provide a reference point for learning. Specific meanings and emotional stimuli in turn serve as material to consider and examine from a variety of perspectives, which entail reflective observation (RO). This in turn result in the looking for patterns, building concepts, testing of theories, and drawing logical conclusions about future implications, a process of abstract conceptualization (AC). People complete the cycle by drawing upon previous insights to solve problems and make decisions, the stage of active experimentation (AE). Kolb (1984) asserts that for learning to be effective in acquiring knowledge or skill, people need to engage fully in four successive stages. Dunlap, Dobrovolny and Young (2008) emphasise that Kolb’s cycle presents itself as scaffold in the design of E²-learning. As result of the transactional distance involved in e-learning, students easily experience real-world projects as frustrating, ineffective, and demoralizing. Kolb's model is therefore promoted as design-mould to provide structure and sequence for students.

In 2011, the South African Council on Higher Education (CHE) published ‘Work-Integrated Learning: Good Practice Guide’ (CHE, 2011), which differentiates several work-integrated learning (WIL) curricular modalities, as alternatives to actual workplace (WPL) or work-based learning (WBL) namely:

• Work-directed theoretical learning (WDTL), which entails theoretical forms of knowledge are introduced and sequenced in ways that meet both academic criteria and are applicable and relevant to the career-specific components
• Problem-based learning (PBL), a pedagogic approach that involves students learning through the structured exploration of a practice-based or research problem
• Project-based learning (PJBL), which brings together intellectual inquiry, real world problems and student engagement in relevant and meaningful work

34 (p. 17) of the South African ‘Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework’ (HEQSF, 2014) states that “In the HEQSF, WIL may take various forms including simulated learning [SWE], work-directed theoretical learning [WBTL], problem-based learning [PBL], project-based learning [PJBL] and workplace-based learning [WPL]”. §34 further states that “The selection of appropriate forms of work-integrated learning depends on the nature and purpose of the qualification type programme objectives and outcomes, the NQF level at which the WIL component is pegged, institutional capacity to provide WIL opportunities, and the structures and systems that are in place within professional settings and sites of practice to support student learning.” (acronyms added).

 

References:

Baasanjav, U. (2013). Incorporating the experiential learning cycle into online classes. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 9(4), 575—589.

Bates, T. (2014). Can you do experiential learning online? Assessing design models for experiential learning Accessible from https://www.tonybates.ca/2014/12/01/can-you-do-experiential-learning-online-assessing-design-models-for-experiential-learning/

Beard, C.; Wilson, J.P. & McCarter, R. (2007). Towards a Theory of e-Learning: Experiential e-Learning. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, 6(2), 3-15. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/95b4/bf51ed82edf9bb529574d65df250fb595df7.pdf

Council on Higher Education (2011). Work-Integrated Learning: Good Practice Guide. HE Monitor No. 12, August 2011. Pretoria: IeCommunications. Electronically accessible from http://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/Higher_Education_Monitor_12.pdf

Dadze-Arthur, A. & Raine, J.W. (2016). Experiential Learning and Teaching at a Distance: How Distinctive an Experience? In Developing Public Managers for a Changing World. Published online: 19 Dec 2016; 141-159. Permanent link to this document: https://doi.org/10.1108/S2045-794420160000005008

Dunlap, J; Dobrovolny, J; and Young, D (2008) Preparing e-Learning Designers Using Kolb's Model of Experiential Learning, Innovate: Journal of Online Education: Vol. 4: Iss. 4, Article 3. Available at: http://nsuworks.nova.edu/innovate/vol4/iss4/3

Illeris, K. (2016). Working and learning, chapter 18, 201-216. In Learning, Development and Education, from learning theory to education and practice—the selected works of Knud Illeris. New York: Routledge.

International Adult and Continuing Education Hall of Fame. (2018). About the Hall of Fame (https://www.halloffame.outreach.ou.edu/about.html), 2006 Hall of Fame Inductees (https://www.halloffame.outreach.ou.edu/by_year/HOF_2006.html), and Knud Illeris (https://www.halloffame.outreach.ou.edu/2006/illeris.html).

South African Government (2014). Department of Higher Education and Training, Government Notice No 819. Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework. Government Gazette No. 38116, 17 October 2014. Electronically accessible from http://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/38116_gon819.pdf and/or http://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/CHE%20-%20Higher%20Education%20Qualification%20Framework%20-%20EDITED%20171013.pdf

Learning from mistakes — ‘selfless respect for reality’

Failure, says Costica Bradatan, “is like the original sin in the biblical narrative: everyone has it. Regardless of class, caste, race, or gender, we are all born to fail, we practise failure for as long as we live, and pass it on to others” (in Everyone fails, but only the wise find humility, 18 August 2016).

Instead of viewing failure negatively, mistakes “ought to inculcate humility”, Bradatan argues and refers to Iris Murdoch’s definition of humility—regarded by him as one of the best and most economical—simply stating: ‘selfless respect for reality’. As humans, our perspectives became much too grand.

Three phases are recommended by Bradatan:

1. We, as individual humans, need to acknowledge of our cosmic insignificance.
2. Once we embraced our insignificance, we need to firmly ground ourselves.
3. “Having lowered an anchor into the world” through the first two phases we “regained an existential equilibrium” and “we can move on to” learn from our mistakes.

Richard Barker commented and stated that “evolution’s agenda is not merely to propel DNA into the next generation, it’s to propel the best DNA into the next generation” and added “indeed, that’s the only benefit to evolution”. Barker also adds that shame serves to silence. If we’re ashamed about our mistakes then we cannot learn from them. Barker argues that we neem to be “open and honest (about the incident)”, and interrogate mistakes. There is a lot of value derivable in learning from mistakes.

Flipping, may challenge the usual order of WIL

Learning happens informally. People lean through what happens in their personal lives, ‘in the course of working’, and through social interaction, observe Helyer and Corkill (2015: 124). ‘Non-formal, non-classroom and self-driven learning’ challenge the conventional model of university education.

‘The concept of flipping is not new’, remark Helyer and Corkill (2015: 129). The university being turned upside down in that gradually learning is taking place through work and life experiences. Universities are increasingly being expected to acknowledge and recognise learning derived through diverse other ways. The ‘flipped classroom’ notion, suggest learning is taking place elsewhere. Lifelong or life-wide learning is derived from work-based learning and problem solving. Flipping is disruptive and potentially democratising, in that linearity or the usual order of things is challenged.

Problems in the workplace are often unpredictable, whereas the nature of work-integrated learning placements insinuate ‘that there are correct answers which could have been taught, whereas a problem arising from work might have no answer, or many answers, and be very complex’ (Helyer & Corkill, 2015: 132). Experiential education suggests 'carefully chosen experiences'.

Mature students often enter higher education with ‘a good deal of knowledge and expertise’, meaning ‘they don't sit in the classroom like empty vessels’. What is needed is ‘articulation, and if appropriate, accreditation of this learning’. Flipping might entail, rather than teaching theory, to send learners to explore the relevant bodies of knowledge (Helyer & Corkill, 2015: 130).

Conventional cooperative and work-integrated learning that pursues ‘work placements, sandwich years, and internships’ as part of the qualification penetrated relatively few qualifications; because of the difficulty experienced to engage sufficient partners for ‘genuine workplace learning experience’ (Helyer & Corkill, 2015: 123). However, there ‘is a growing acknowledgement that there are other routes through higher level study, such as higher and degree apprenticeships in England and Wales, which can now provide a paid work-based pathway through to gaining a university degree, right up to Master’s degree level’ (Helyer & Corkill, 2015: 124). There is further both ‘an increased demand from industry for higher education for existing employees’ and for provision of alternative routes that would ‘take more account of learning inside and outside the workplace, including the use of online learning to lessen the need for costly personal attendance’. These suggest a serious need for flipping.

The conventional notion is that universities are the primary places of higher learning, and that ‘this learning may subsequently be taken out into the wider world or workplace and applied’. However, there is a growing ‘recognition of the value of experiential learning’ and an acknowledgement that learning ‘occurs via social learning, communities of practice and action learning’ (Helyer & Corkill, 2015: 125).

Helyer and Corkill (2015: 127-8) explored through research the question ‘what is experiential learning?’ Most of the responses to their question ‘firmly connected experiential learning to actively doing, reinforcing the term’s association with work-based learning and the flipping style of delivery’. The ‘strong associations with learning by experiencing through work activities’ is reflected by the second largest response, ‘work-place experience’.

Helyer, R. and Corkill, H. 2015. Flipping the academy: Is learning from outside the classroom turning the university inside out? Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 16(2), 121-135.

Project-based (PjBL) versus problem-based learning (PBL)

Experiential Learning is defined by Wheeler (2008, 63) as a method of education, a “type of learning [that] occurs when students participate, reflect, and use analytical skills to gain useful insights from an activity, and then incorporate these experiences into their daily living”. He explored two methods of experiential learning, namely project-based learning (PjBL) and problem-based learning (PBL), which share many characteristics, but are different. Krauss and Boss (2013, 10) state that “project-based learning overlaps with problem-based learning”; that there are “more similarities than differences”; and that “similar pedagogic concerns influenced the development of both”. 

A project is usually assigned to students individually or groups of six to eight students, when project-based learning (PjBL) is used. The primary objective of PjBL is to engage students in a relevant and substantial investigation, either individually or collaboratively. The emphasis is on “information search and retrieval, knowledge application, and critical thinking”(Wheeler 2008, 63). Projects assigned are “based on commonly encountered [complex] real-world problems and situations”. The activities of students revolve around the “design, problem solving, decision-making, and investigation” concerning the project and PjBL typically ends “with the delivery of a realistic project plan and formal presentation”. 

Krauss and Boss (2013, 10) indicate that “problem-based learning emerged in medical schools during the 1950s”, because medical students experienced difficulty to “make the leap from academic work to effective clinical practice”. Wheeler (2008, 63) defines PBL as “an instructional method that challenges students to ‘learn to learn,’ working cooperatively in groups to seek solutions to real world problems”. It is small group oriented, requiring of “students meet regularly to investigate, explain and resolve multiple, real-world problems”. Problems assigned to students “often describe a situation requiring an explanation and resolution”, such as business cases. Krauss and Boss (2013, 10) affirm this by indicating that teaching physicians developed clinical scenarios that mirrored challenges of daily physician practice which medical students had to resolve. The learning shifted from memorizing text books to problem solving, which became the standard in many disciplines. 

Krauss and Boss (2013, 10) point out that John Dewey, the education and social reformer, in 1916, argued that students are not receptacles to pour knowledge into, but that intellectual engagement is a necessity. They state that “both problem- and project-based learning press students beyond knowledge acquisition” to active engagement and critical thinking resulting in constructing own meaning and the ability to apply what learned. 

Both PjBL and PBL employ open-ended questions, scenarios and/or challenges. “Neither state the steps to a solution” caution Krauss and Boss (2013, 7 & 10) by stating “be wary of project plans that call for too many scripted steps”, because “step-by-step projects leave little room for students to wrestle with uncertainty, raise new questions, or solve problems in novel ways”. Furthermore, “overplanning is a symptom of teacher-directed instruction” and students are unlikely to be challenged and “to reach their full potential as capable, creative learners”. 

Krauss and Boss (2013, 11) state that the biggest difference between PjBL and PBL “have to do with the focus, duration, and outcomes of each”. The processes for PjBL are more diffuse, the learning path and work products are likely to be unique, and teams often exceed the standards for minimally accepted outcomes of the projects. Krauss and Boss (2013, 12) state that “a good project sets up conditions in which students are compelled to inquire”.

Krauss, J. and Boss, S. 2013. Thinking through project-based learning, guiding deeper inquiry. Thousand Oaks: Corwin (Sage).

Wheeler, R. 2008. Experiential learning: impact of two instructional methods on student – instructor interaction, student critical thinking, and student course evaluations. Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education, 12, Summer, 63-78.

What are experiences that combine work experiences with formal education called?

This question is posed and a range of 11 alternative names outlined, as well as six types of delivery programmes, by Gardener and Barkus (2014).

The range of alternative names developed include:

1. Work-integrated learning (WIL)
2. Work-based learning
3. Cooperative and work-integrated education (CWIE)
4. Vocational education and training
5. Career and technical education (CTE)
6. Work placement
7. Project-based learning
8. Experiential education
9. Experiential learning
10. Professional development
11. Community/civic engagement

Range of programmes designed to deliver work-education experiences:

1. Cooperative education
2. Internships
3. Externships
4. Apprenticeships
5. Practicum
6. Service learning

Strange that clinical training is not mentioned?

Gardner, P. & Bartkus, K.R. 2014. What's in a name? A reference guide to work-education experiences. Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 15(1), 37-54.

Three main categories of curriculum-related work experience

Work experience can take a variety of forms, say Little et al (2001) and identified three main categories (Work Experience Group, 2002: 23), namely:

1. Organised work experience as part of a programme of study
2. Organised work experience external to a programme of study
3. Ad hoc work experience external to a programme of study.

Work experience could be embedded in the curriculum; for example, experience (perhaps project-linked) that is assessed and accredited; or part-time vacation, term-time paid, and voluntary work that students are increasingly undertaking.

Little, B., Moon, S., Pierce, D., Harvey, L. & Marlow-Hayne, N. 2001. Nature and extent of undergraduates’ work experience. Centre for Higher Education Research and Information. Electronically accessed 9 November 2013 from http://asetonline.org/PDFs/Nature%20and%20Extent%20of%20Work%20Experience.pdf

Work Experience Group. 2002. Report to the Department for Education and Skills. Nottingham: DfES Publications. Electronically accessed 9 November 2013 from http://www.asetonline.org/documents/WRLR.pdf

Clinical Learning Opportunites

Rather interesting, the South African Government Gazettes Nos 36234 and 36235 differ with regard to the definition of clinical learning opportunities. Both state it "means the range of learning experiences  ... available in a healthcare setting  ... other experiential learning sites ... a learner ... to gain the required clinical skills"; however:

• No 36234, referenced in the post about regulations pertaining to accreditation of nursing education institutions specify the range of learning experiences to include "work-integrated learning and service learning, available in a healthcare setting, which may also include other experiential learning sites where a learner has the opportunity ..."
• whereas No 36235, referenced in the post titled gazetted terminology for professional nurse and midwife education and training restrict the definition to "means the range of learning experiences  available in a healthcare setting or other experiential learning sites for a learner to gain the required clinical skills"

 Do these differences signify anything important or are they merely admistrative oversights?

DHET Learning Programme Regulations, 2012

The South African government notice, referenced below, conveys the Minister of Higher Education and Training intention to repeal the Learnership Regulations (published in Government Notice R 519 in Government Gazette No 30010 dated 29 June 2007) and makes available Learning Programme Regulations—under the Skills Development Act, 1998 (Act No. 97 of 1998)—for public comment a 30 day period that ended 5 August 2012.

The notice defines a "learning programme agreement" to mean an agreement as intended in the regulations. The notice further specifies and defines, among others, the following:

• Candidacy—meaning “the practical and work experience training that is an occupational qualification as determined by the relevant professional body and follows the completion of an academic qualification required for access to the assessment for the issuing of a professional designation. This learning must lead to the issuing of a designation registered on the NQF” (emphasis added).
• Internship—meaning “the structured work experience component of an occupational qualification registered by the” Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO) as contemplated in Section 26G of the Skills Development Act.
• Learner—meaning “the learning party to a learning programme agreement, who is enrolled in a registered learning programme that has a curriculum registered with QCTO and includes [the] Iearner contemplated in both section 18( 1) and section 18(2 )of the Act” (emphasis added).
• Learnership—meaning “a learning programme that leads to an occupational qualification or part qualification and includes an apprenticeship and cadetship”
• Placement—meaning “a learner is placed in a workplace to complete part of an internship”
• Structured learning component—includes both “the knowledge and practical curriculum components of an occupational qualification” and the structured work experience component "means the workplace curriculum components of an occupational qualification” (emphasis added).
• Successful completion—meaning that “the Iearner has successfully completed the learning programme and has been declared competent”.
• Termination—means “the cancellation or dissolution of a learning programme agreement before one or more of the components of the learning programme agreement have been successfully completed”.
• Work integrated learning—“means a process that formally integrates a student's academic qualification or part qualification with work experience in participating employer organisations” (emphasis added).

The definitions quoted above are in need of some editing, because the way they are currently stated excludes—probably unintentionally—certain types, for example, the definition of a learner by implication excludes higher education qualifications.[The Directorate: SETA Support and Learnerships of the South African national Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) advised that the regulations are not finalized yet, the staff are still busy with the consolidation of public comments. As soon as the revised regulations are approved by the Minister, theywill then be publish in a gazette and also on the DHET website.]

Chapter 2 deals with the registration and management of learning programme agreements; chapter 3 with disputes; and chapter 4 with administrative provisions. Annexure A1 (pp. 12-20) reflects the full Learning Programme Agreement (excluding Skills Programmes) and annexure A2 the agreement for skills programmes.

Republic of South Africa. 2012. Department of Higher Education and Training. Government Gazette, Skills Development Act: Regulations: Learning Programme: Draft, (G 35489, General Notice 545), 5 July. Electronically available from http://www.info.gov.za/view/DownloadFileAction?id=169917 and/or http://www.dhet.gov.za/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=RY4DaZ62eQU%3d&tabid=346&mid=1415

Three modes of experiential education

The Best Practices for Legal Education (2007) publication of the Clinical Legal Education Association (CLEA) represents the fruit of 25 years of rich dialogue among American law teachers, lawyers, and judges, regarding the education of lawyers. In the foreword is stated that the American Bar Association convened a 1984 conference ‘Legal Education and the Profession: Approaching the 21st Century’. The foreword further states that in 1987 Justice Rosalie Wahl of the Minnesota Supreme Court and Chair of the ABA Section of Legal Education and Admissions to the Bar rhetorically asked:

Have we really tried in law school to determine what skills, what attitudes, what character traits, what quality of mind are required of lawyers? Are we adequately educating students through the content and methodology of our present law school curriculums to perform effectively as lawyers after graduation?

The purpose of this elaborate prologue is to convey the credible nature of the three modes of experiential education identified in Chapter 5: Best Practices for Experiential Courses (pp 121 – 152, note that the page numbers of individual online chapters differ from the full publication) of the CLEA Best Practices for Legal Education (2007: 122), namely:

• In-house law clinics offering students opportunities to represent clients or perform other professional roles under the supervision of members of the faculty
• Externships — where students represent clients or perform other professional roles under the supervision of practicing lawyers or they observe or assist practicing lawyers or judges in their work
• Simulation-based courses granting students hypothetical situations to assume professional roles and perform law-related tasks

These three modes, although many different terms are used, are common in many disciplines, for example:

• Practicals, laboratory work, applied field experiences facilitated and managed by lecturers
• Work-integrated/experiential/work-based learning in the occupational field under supervision of an experienced practitioner
• Simulated learning providing experience in hypothetical situations

Brayne, Duncan and Grimes (1998: 244) address externships as a means for law students to obtain a credit “working in legal settings”. It is interesting to note that “in the United States, students may not receive financial compensation for work which warrants educational credit”. Brayne, Duncan and Grimes (1998) identify both advantages and disadvantages with regard to externships. Potential advantages include “lower costs, variety of opportunities, work experience, service to the community, and flexibility”. As far as disadvantages are concerned, the main one identified is the potential “lack of control over the quality of the educational experience”.

Brayne, H; Duncan, N & Grimes, R. 1998. Clinical legal education: active learning in your law school. London: Blackstone.

Stuckey, R & Others. 2007. Best Practices for Legal Education. United States: Clinical Legal Education Association. Retrieved 2 November 2011 from: http://www.cleaweb.org/best-practices -- note the hyperlink to the best practices blog at the bottom of the web page.

What are experiential programmes?

The Clinical Legal Education Association (CLEA) Best Practices for Legal Education (2007: 165, note that the page numbers of individual online chapters differ from the full publication) defines experiential programmes as those “rely on experiential education as a significant or primary method of instruction”. The experiences of students in the roles of lawyers, in simulations, as well as “their observations of practicing lawyers and judges” play an important role. The integration of theory and practice through “combining academic inquiry with actual experience” is regarded as experiential education.

Learning is not education, because learning happens as part of life through experiences, observations and eavesdropping. Education comprises learning opportunities that were designed; are managed; and may involve guided experience. Although law students may derive valuable learning experiences from part-time work experiences in legal settings, the CLEA Best Practices for Legal Education (2007: 165) argues cannot be regarded “experiential education because the learning in such environments is not necessarily accompanied by academic inquiry”.

Stuckey, R & Others. 2007. Best Practices for Legal Education. United States: Clinical Legal Education Association. Retrieved 2 November 2011 from: http://www.cleaweb.org/best-practices

Post-simulation reflection

Margaret Gredler (1992: 141 – 159) emphasises the role of post-simulation activities and the planning thereof. She asserts that simulations are experiential in nature in that participants “step into the assigned roles, accept the responsibilities and constraints and work through the problems and difficulties that arise in the execution of the roles”. To overcome the reality of can’t see the woods for the trees (because of active involvement in the simulation); bring the learning forth; and to maximise the learning; reflection about the simulation is essential.

Gredler (1992) discusses two experiential learning models, namely Kurt Lewin’s (a Gestalt theorist) group-dynamics model and Jean Piaget’s (a Swiss psychologist) cognitive development model.

Jaques (1985, referenced in Gredler) describes the adaptation of Lewin’s ideas in a five-part experiential learning cycle, which upon completion feeds into another cycle.

Piaget postulates that cognitive structures happens through two processes; namely by means of assimilation of new information into the existing to enrich; and by accommodating which can occur in two different ways. The one way of accommodation is modification in order to integrate new information; the other way is through reconstruction to a higher level of thinking.

Post-simulation reflection need to form part of and conclude the simulation. In a distance learning context, this could be achieved through online discussion.

Gredler, M. 1992. Designing and evaluating games and simulations, a process approach. London: Kogan Page.

Jaques, D. 1985. Debriefing, debriefing, 55 – 66. In M van Ments and K Hearndon (eds). Effective use of games and simulations. Loughborough: SAGSET, Loughborough Institute of Technology.

Semester in-industry learning industry affiliates model

The semester-in-industry model is, according to Edwards (2007) a characteristic of the Australian undergraduate engineering work-integrated learning industry affiliates program. Engineers Australia, the Australian engineering accrediting body, advocates that a key differentiating element of a professional engineering degree from an applied science degree is exposure through work-practice. The industry affiliates program entail students work on a joint industry-university supervised project during the first semester of the final year. Edwards (2007) summarizes the roles and responsibilities of the three partners to the industry affiliates program as follow:

• The industry partner provides the resources for the project; technical supervision for the student; and a suitable workplace for the student similar to that provided for commencing engineers. Industry partners are not expected to pay students.
• The aim is to integrate the student into the professional culture of organization. The student manages the project and adheres to the dress and attendance standards of the industry partner.
• The university selects suitable projects (in consultation with industry partners); help match students to projects; and provides academic supervision of students by visiting student in industry placement to ensure the meeting of requirements.

 The schedule of a typical industry affiliates program model is as follow (Edwards 2007):

October (of year before)	Briefing of students and preparation of CVs
November	List of project topics released and student apply
December to January	Students interviewed and selected for projects
February	Pre-industry workshops; agreements signed between industry partner and student; and student prepares project milestones
February to June	Industry experience by executing an assigned project and regular monitoring of project plan by industry and university
June	Exhibition of projects and submission of thesis

Work-integrated Learning (WiL) is a term used by many Australian universities and internationally to refer to activities that integrate the work (or industry) experience with formal studies. Edwards (2007) points out that it can take multiple forms, such as periods of work experience, internships, site visits, industry based projects, case studies using industry experience, having industry experts provide guest lectures, etc.

Edwards, D. 2007. Integrating Work Integrated Learning. Presented at the International Conference on Engineering Education – ICEE 2007, September 3 – 7, Coimbra, Portugal. Retrieved February 10, 2011 from http://www.ineer.org/Events/ICEE2007/papers/226.pdf   

Raw learning materials and learning tools

Sweitzer & King (2004:4-5) differentiates between classroom and internship learning with regard to two dimensions. I am adapting their description to distance education:

	Distance theoretical learning	Internship learning
The raw learning materials	Study guides, reading, tutorial letters, exercises, on-line discussions & tutorial sessions	Intellectual, physical and human experimental interactions—full of feelings and struggles. These emotions are not just a backdrop to the real-work experience, but every bit as real and important. Mastery of psyco-motor skills may also apply.
The learning tools	Memorise, analyse, synthesise and evaluate.	Experience must be processed and organised; reflective dialogue with self and others is a primary tool for learning; and relationships are the medium of internship.

Please note that Sweitzer & King (2004:3) use the internship to refer to a range terms of that entail an academic credit for experiences, for example field work/experience, cooperative/field education and practicum (terms they indicate no consensus exists on about the meaning).

Sweitzer & King (2004:6-7) further clarify the following terms (Download Sweitzer+King-terms):

• Placement or site—refers to the place where the student is working (gaining experience).
• Intern—refers to the student or volunteer who is working.
• Supervisor—person assigned by the placement site to mentor the student.
• Instructor—the academic staff member that oversees the student's placement.
• Coworker—refers to other people working at the placement.

Sweitzer, H.F. & King, M.A. 2004. The successful internship—transformation and empowerment in experiential learning, 2^nd edition. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole—Thompson Learning.

Commentary e-mailed by a peer:

"Thomas, my comments:

Perhaps consideration be given to differentiate between and internship and experiential learning/work integrated learning. Internship specifically refers to students after a qualification has been achieved, whilst experiential learning/WIL is while the student is busy with its qualification.

The principle of experiential learning applies to both however there might be a difference. I do recognize a difference since the one is part of a qualification and the students is perhaps less mature than a graduate (intern) who is more mature and is a graduate. Time is an important factor. Maturity in terms of cognitive, emotional, social skills  etc

Wrt internship, I would recommend the integration of the theories of learning which will explain many of the emotional, social and cognitive processes of the learner, in terms of EL/WIL which can be related to an intern as well.

Wrt Terminology:  

I prefer using a workstation instead of a placement site,

Instructor I am a bit uncomfortable with, I would rather use a term like a supervisor or mentor.

Hope this was of value Thomas!

Marius"

techne, episteme, poiesis, praxis & phronesis

Charles Sides and Ann Mrvica differentiates between five (5) very important Aristotelian concepts:

• techne - what people can do; a state of capacity to make; the rational method involved in producing an object or accomplishing a goal or objective
• episteme - a fixed set of information possessed by people; a system of understanding or a body of ideas which give shape to theoretical knowledge
• poiesis - means 'to make'; it is an action that transforms; it refers to 'bringing-forth'; a threshold occasion: a moment of ecstasis when something/s becomes another
• praxis - a practice (as distinguished from theory); application of skill; conduct in a public space considered as excellence
• phronesis - the capability to consider the mode of action in order to deliver change, especially to enhance the quality of life; some believe it includes the ability to reflect upon; it is practical wisdom, knowledge of the proper ends of life, in contrast to sophia - involving wisdom concerning universal truths; science

Sides and Mrvica believes that internships - as form of learning - are pursuing techne, poiesis and praxis (pp. v & 1-2). Through internships knowledge communities are sustained. When deliberating about evaluation of internship, they add the term phronesis (pp. 95-98).

I found this differentiation extremely valuable.

Sides CH. & Mrvica A. 2007. Internships, theory and practice. New York: Baywood.

Spaces of learning

Spaces of learning (pp 105-6, 175-180, 184, & 191-5)

— notes from Illeris, K. 2002. The three dimensions of learning. Malabar, Fla: Krieger

Everyday learning, tacit knowledge and informal learning

Life occurs simultaneously in several spaces, with different rationales that do not necessary have any connection — everyday consciousness (a notion that everyday life has become fragmented and impoverished as result of the dominance of economic pressures and rationality). Everyday living consists of a long succession of separated situations, each with its own purpose, with the only commonality time-structure — ruled by the clock. Parallel hereto is everyday learning, namely learning that occurs informally and by chance, within the various spaces, while occupied with getting everything to function and grasping it more-or-less. There is a continuous flood of impulses and impressions that requires various ways of navigating and relating. Michael Polanyi called it tacit learning leading to tacit knowledge.

Jean Lave and Patricia Greenfield characterised informal learning by these points:

·         embedded in the activities of daily life

·         the responsibility for acquiring the skill and knowledge rests with the learner

·         others, that one encounter, serve as appropriate teachers

·         absence of an explicit pedagogy and curriculum

·         continuity and tradition are valued

·         learning occurs through observation and imitation

·         teaching happens through demonstration

·         social engagement by novices and participation in the adult sphere serve as motivation

Practice learning in a community of practice

Practice learning refers to goal-directed learning similar to the old master-apprentice relationship; to short-term trainee arrangements as part of professional training courses; as well as to induction periods after theoretical training, when beginning a professional career. A concept legitimate peripheral participation means learning through participation in a community of practice—it is generally accepted that learners start in a peripheral position and gradually learn cognitively, emotionally and socially. This growth ultimately results in full membership of a community.

Institutional learning

A fundamental motif of capitalist society is the provision of qualified workers by the state. Commerce and industry mainly take on training activities related to their own particular needs. Society further require of new generations to substantially socialise together, which takes place under auspices of the state.

Learning at work, organisational learning and ‘the learning organisation’

The workplace, as learning space, has attracted in recent years substantial attention—this applies to the opportunities of employees to learn and gain qualifications at work or in connection with work.

Aleksei Leontjev theorised that when people labour psychological structures emerge within the persons working, this imitates the structural nature of the work. The more complex the work, the more advanced the psychological structure. The human psyche further regulates the individual’s actions. When work is freed from repressive structures it frees up personality-development opportunities.

Chris Argyris and Donald Schön organisational learning to indicate the learning in organisations, meaning it takes place in or is connected to organisations—typically large private enterprise. Learning in organisations is influenced by the nature and goals of the specific enterprise, which includes profit making, competition, developing and marketing products (or services), and providing a workplace for employees. However, rigid routines do get in the way of learning. The learning organisation is defined by Peter Senge as an organisation where people continually make bigger the capacity to create the results that they desire; a workplace where new and unrestrained thinking patterns are nurtured; where aspirations are unrestrained and people learn to learn collectively.

Promoting the notion of cross-pollinating theories and practice

It has been an enriching experience to have attended the Unisa Teacher Education at a Distance conference the past week. Attached (Download Dr_T_Groenewald-Quality_in_vivo_learning.ppt) please find my personal presentation at the conference.

A number of issues stood out to me, worth capturing for further exploration:

• Graduates enter work and are confronted by unscripted stuff, they often sink or swim. Curriculum design should contemplate the kinds of problems graduate are likely to be confronted with and concentrate on equipping students to deal with these.
• Indigenous knowledge should not be dismissed, there is much to learn; but should not be exploited either, without rewarding the knowledge carriers/holders fairly.
• We must be careful with what lens we approach things, there are many other viewpoint also!
• Learning in vivo should, like most learning, be staggered.
• Practice is merely an activity, whereas participation is about learning derived from active experience (Do not dismiss this idea as just playing with words).

There were many other inspiring ideas contained in presentations that are  specific to teacher education. One such idea is the process of lesson study: teachers gather to critique a teacher's lecture and all learn from it. The emphasis here is on continued professional development. It certainly has application possibilities in many other occupational/professional fields. The idea of subjecting yourself, your practice to scrutiny of other; as well as partaking in constructive critique of peers. 

Experiential, Practical & Propositional Knowledge

Although everybody learns from experience, nobody always learns from experience. Most at times repeat some mistakes, despite bad experiences. Burnard (1996) expresses surprises about how often he 'learned' the really important things in his life through experiences that he found interesting or important. It may therefore be assumed that for learning in vivo to achieve its desired objectives, the facilitator should make it to matter.

Learning from the mistakes of others is called vicarious learning by Burnard (1996). The experiences of other may make such an impression that we derive learning from it.

Burnard (1996) observes that all definitions of learning experientially have in common the first-person, living human being, taking note of what happens to apply to new situations in future.

Experiential learning is not just about learning from doing (or the observing of the experiences of other, as indicated above), it is also about deriving learning from reflecting. Burnard (1996) emphasise the latter, rather than just acting and possibly forfeiting the learning opportunity. To optimise structured in vivo learning, it appears that the facilitator should therefore 'build in' reflection, i.e. ensure 'noticing'.

Burnard (1996) emphasises the issue of reflection. People often proceed through life only half conscious, on 'auto pilot'. People often do not register what they are experiencing. Burnard emphasise the importance of 'mindfulness'. In the contemporary world of continuous change and coping with demands, people need to consciously pursue mindfulness (simply means to pay attention — to your body, to your mind, to your surroundings, to the people in your life, to the tasks you undertake).

Burnard identifies three types of knowledge, illustrated below, which are not independent, but supportive of each other.

Flowing from the above, Burnard (p. 9) redefines experiential learning as "any learning activity that enhances the development of experiential knowledge".

Burnard refers further to Paulo Freire's (1972) concept "praxis", which includes both reflection as well as action-on-the-world. Praxis implies transforming, which is one of the human's distinguishing features. Burnard also refers to George Kelly's (1955) notion of people going through life applying a modified scientific process, i.e. hypothesising about matters, observing reality and modifying of our hypotheses based on our findings.

Burnard, P. 1996. Acquiring interpersonal skills - a handbook of experiential learning for health professionals. 2nd edition. London: Chapman & Hall.

More to learning-in-experience than 'slave' of the global market machinery

I grew up in a 'good' Calvinistic environment, did obligatory national service, complete university studies and started my career with a post-graduate internship. I never questioned the 'primary purpose' of experiential learning as being to prepare people for profit making service and to keep people current as human capital. Tara Fenwick's monograph on a theoretical critique of experiential learning from five perspectives literally pulled the carpet out from under my beliefs. I am grateful!

The five perspectives (with Fenwick's descriptive titles in brackets) are:

• Constructivism
• Psychoanalytical (interference)
• Situative (participation)
• Critical cultural (resistance)
• Enactivist (co-emergence)

This post expands on another (http://psychsoma.co.za/learning_in_vivo/2008/08/a-brief-theoret.html) on the theory of learning from experience.

1. Constructivism

Meaning is constructed from reflecting on lived experiences, which is then interpreted and generalised. This acquired knowledge is stored in memory and transferred to future situations. The construction oscillates between assimilation (new knowledge constructs incorporated) and accommodation (altering of existing constructs when new experiences contradicts past knowledge).

David Boud asserts that preparation enhanced the learning; similarly do noticing and intervening of the participants actual experience; also the recalling and re-evaluation of the experience; as well as attending to the feelings provoked by the experience. The recalling and re-evaluation occur through four processes: association (relating to the familiar), integration (seeking connections), appropriation (making new knowledge your own) and validation (determine the authenticity).

Donald Schön emphasised workplace learning by dealing with problems, by noticing them and framing them, then enquiring and experimenting with solutions. Sometimes people reflect-in-action by improvising on-the-spot to resolve problems. Other times people reflect-on-action in a time zone after encountering the problem.

Jack Mezirow introduced transformative learning (one of the most influential ideas about adult learning that emerged in the past 20 years). Reflection is triggered when a problem, a disorientating dilemma, is encountered for which no ready solution is available. When the deep-seated beliefs or premises are questioned, critical reflection happens. When the taken-for-granted assumptions are challenged and result in dramatic shift then transformation occur.

In constructivism the educator's role vary between facilitator, instigator, coach and assessor.

2. Psychoanalytical (interference)

This perspective opens different ways of approaching the unconscious; Resistance to knowledge; a desire for mastery and closure; etc. Knowledge dilemmas are experienced within, as result of struggles between the unconscious and conscious, which result in anxiety that generates resistance to knowledge. The person (as a split) doing the experiencing has three registers with which her/his psychic world meets the external world, namely: the imaginary (childhood understanding of the self as undifferentiated from the mother and a desire to complete her); the symbolic (language and cultural issues); and the real (a sense of shortcoming, which cannot be understood by the conscious). People learn by working through the conflicts of psychic events. Experiential learning tolerates one's conflicting desires and grants the recovering from the terror of self-knowledge. Learning is about experimenting and willingly engaging in traumas of the self.

3. Situative (participation)

The learning is routed in the situation (knowledge flows in the action) wherein the experience occurs. The engaging in changing the human processes of a community defines the knowing and learning. Individuals learn by interacting with their community. The objective is not mere learning about, but to become a full participant in the community of practice, by experiencing (learning in it) at the margins (observation, try out and interacting in a small way) and gradually getting integrated into the full network. Learning is embedded and transformed when applied elsewhere.

4. Critical cultural (resistance)

Inevitably there are competing power and cultural relations present in any human system. When the mechanisms of power are identified, Resistance appear, which in turn can open people to unexpected, unimagined possibilities for growth and development. Learning is shaped by the discourses and semiotics (signs, codes and texts) of a particular cultural space. There are often dualistic categories (e.g. opposite genders, etc) representing unequal distribution of authority and resources. The labels assigned can legitimise, depersonalise or exclude, Discourses contain both winners and losers. Learning happens informally and incidentally, during everyday life. Some of the most distinguished learning (emancipatory experiential learning) occurs during struggle against some form of oppression, by trying to make sense of what is happening and how to fight/overcome it. The learning demystifies authority, give insight in different perspectives and if reconciliation is feasible.

5. Enactivist (co-emergence)

Here cognition and the simultaneous enactment of the environment, through experiential learning, is explored. Person and context are inseparable and change occur, as result of tinkering intentionally or unintentionally, from emerging systems. By participating (embedded in conduct), a person learns to participate more effectively. Tacit knowledge unfolds in circumstances that evoked the actions. Learning is a continuous exploration and invention. There is no absolute standard, adequate conduct is determined by what action serves the particular circumstances. The roles of educators might include communicator (helping to name what is unfolding), story-maker (help recording and tracing interactions), and interpreter ( help making sense of the patterns emerging).

Fenwick asserts that 'experiential learning' need to be continually unravelled and challenged. The premises and baggage associated must be questioned. We must question our personal motives and intentions with experiential learning.

Reference:

Fenwick,  T.J. 2001. Experiential learning: a theoretical critique from five perspectives. Electronically available at:   http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED454418&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED454418