Learning in vivo

Beyond ‘panic-gogy’ to adoption of innovative WIL pedagogies and practices

The “COVID-19 pandemic has provided a sudden and significant driver for rapid change and adoption of innovative online WIL pedagogies and practices” say Dean and Campbell (2021: 355). They argue for moving beyond the initial ‘panic-gogy’ to quality, innovative, and sustainable non-placement models of WIL. ‘Panic-gogy’ is a tongue-in-cheek term coined for the transitional online pedagogies pursued during the COVID-19 pandemic. Baker (2020: 1) quoted Morris who says “the term being batted about on Twitter … referring to this idea of just grasping at straws, trying to figure out what you could possibly do … suddenly forced to go online and experiencing that kind of panic”. Educators had been seeking pedagogies to bridge the gap, to retain some kind of normality, a pedagogy of resilience, of kindness, very flexible and human-centred.

Dean and Campbell (2021) indicate that the disruptions caused by COVID-19, accelerated many emerging changes with the required rapid move to online and/or distance learning models. The “value of alternative forms of work-integrated learning (WIL), in spaces other than physical workplaces, has been realized“, they observe. After the initial state of ‘panic-gogy’, with rife experimentation, purposeful design of ‘non-placement work-integrated learning’ (NPWIL) now requires attention. Experiences shown that different models and approaches can provide authenticity of work practices.

The ways of working, as well as where work is undertaken, are evolving. “Work is no longer simply completed within the confines of a bounded office and constraints of time periods”, observe Dean and Campbell (2021: 355); with for example, “remote work settings, fluid time constraints and continuous connectivity” becoming common practice. However, there is not consistency across the economy with regard to the changing nature of work. Changes tend to be industry and sector specific, as well as piece-meal, often driven by organisational specific goals.

Dean and Campbell (2021: 357) postulate that “with both the constructs of work and learning evolving rapidly as a consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic it is an inevitability that WIL, which connects these two worlds, also has to transform”. They remark that over the past two decades WIL models have been steadily experiencing innovation and a range of alternative models of WIL have emerged. Furthermore, as result of the changing world of work graduates needed to develop diverse and transferable skills.

Dean and Campbell (2021: 357) mention WIL models such as micro-placements, hackathons, competitions and events; including models beyond workplace-based experiences or requiring extensive time in workplaces, such as engaging students through short, authentic activities; and partnering with, or creating small-to-medium enterprises (SMEs) to develop entrepreneurial skills. They observe that the notion of the building of SMEs spurred the development of start-ups, consultations and incubators. WIL models further are increasingly multi-disciplinary within industry contexts, as well as engaging students from across disciplinary areas through interdisciplinary WIL. The location of WIL is further broadened beyond local contexts, with global mobility. Some WIL models are moving beyond physical constraints, by using technological platforms, online projects, virtual placements and various forms of online simulations.

Challenges such as teaching to large cohorts, resource limitations or scalability, and needing to provide access to all students, emphasise the need for one-to-many WIL models (i.e. replacing the one workplace supervisor or mentor guiding the work of one student or small group of students, “with multiple staff across an organisation working with, guiding and coaching large cohorts of students”), say Dean and Campbell (2021: 357). An increased agile curriculum, which allow for increased variability in student experiences, is required. Hopefully, such shorter, less resource intensive WIL models, would result in increased willingness of industry and also community, to partner with higher education institutions.

The COVID-19 pandemic induced ‘pivot online’ may, ponder Dean and Campbell (2021), be the catalyst to move towards more inclusive WIL approaches, such as opportunities for students in regional and rural settings; bespoke activities or partnership experiences, and/or scaling WIL through novel, collaborative, virtual platforms. Higher Education institutions “need to enquire into the needs of industry and community and explore how we can work together, think outside-the-box, and design authentic experiences for student cohorts” say Dean and Campbell (2021: 358). “Placements are not the only solution to authentic work practice when work practice itself continues to shift and is enabled by technology, they argue (p. 360).

Dean, B.A. & Campbell, M. (2021). Reshaping work-integrated learning in a post-COVID-19 world of work. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 21(4), 355-364. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_21_4_355_364.pdf

Baker, K.J. (2020). Panic-gogy: A Conversation With Sean Michael Morris. The National Teaching& Learning Forum, 29(4), 1-3. Electronically accessible from https://doi.org/10.1002/ntlf.30239

What competences; which experiences; and feasibility?

For teaching and learning, the central—“constituting something from which other related things proceed or upon which they depend”—issue, is the expected/stated outcomes (such as knowledge, skills, and attitudes), and/or competencies.

Once the expected outcomes and/or competencies are known, careful consideration must be given to which learning experiences are most likely to accomplish those; and the feasibility of providing such.

Certain learning is best acquired (or accomplished) through contextual experience/s, application, and reflection. A number of conditions are of significance pertaining contextual experiences, such as:

• The degree of authenticity (or genuineness) for learning that is provided
• The degree of fidelity (or proximity) with regard to reality
• The extent of interactivity (and immersivity) made feasible

The extent to which the occupational-field/the profession/the community-of-practice/vocational representatives were involved in determining the learning outcomes; and in particular the expression of willingness to support the teaching, by providing real-life learning opportunities, is a major deciding factor. Without adequate support, and the provision of access to contextual learning experiences, the options are reduced; and workplace-learning placements become a substantial challenge.

Workplace/clinical-field/professional/vocational realities, however, do not always permit actual exposure. This could be due to for example security/confidentiality/safety/sensitivity. In such circumstances, the realities could be simulated in a variety of ways in order to provide alternative experiences with the objective of achieving the stated learning outcomes.

The aforesaid highlight some of the teaching-design considerations, however, there are many other issues to consider, and a range of options and possibilities. Some of the potential modes of teaching include:

• Work-integrated/workplace/work-based learning, clinical training/professional practice/placement
• Project- and problem-based learning, work-based project, and live projects
• Case-based learning, case studies, case methods, life course/experience, and story telling
• Studio-based learning, studio-work, studios, and problem solving
• Service learning, community engagement, and role plays
• Virtual learning environments, virtual reality, and a range of potential simulations
• Non-placement work-integrated learning
• Work-directed theoretical learning, and projects

Virtual experiential learning is feasible

If swimming schools can further mastery through virtual swimming school, instead of letting learners slide back; and if township children can continue with violin lessons amid lockdown using WhatsApp; then surely higher and further education can achieve work-integrated learning virtually.

The COVID-19 pandemic may have grounded flights and put the world into lockdown, and the legendary African safari might be on hold; but inventive conservationists introduced virtual safaris in living rooms through cameras mounted to vehicles. Paid-for private tours by means of Zoom video calls will soon start. A zoo introduced drive-through animal viewing affording families the opportunity to ‘visit’ a zoo while in isolation.

Lockdown abruptly halted traditional workplace-based experiential learning. Solutions are explored for especially students that would have graduated at the end of 2020. As the economy is gradually reignited traditional workplace-based experiential learning might still be hampered. Institutions are recommended to virtually engage the relevant communities of practice and professional or vocational bodies, in order to seek opportunities to virtually ‘exhibit’ relevant graduate attributes, problems experienced and critical cross-field outcomes [CCFOs] that need to be attained. Filming need not be professionally done. Students can virtually engage with the virtual exemplars and through structured online learning gain their prerequisite ‘experience’.

If numerous virtual concerts work, if drive-though strip shows are supported, why would virtual experiential learning not be feasible?

What can electronic experiential learning appropriate from the COVID-19 pandemic?

When governments locked down countries, initiatives blossomed. Athletes, for example, started running virtual marathons in their gardens. On Easter Sunday evening Andrea Bocelli made history by presenting the 'Music for Hope' concert from an empty Milan cathedral, peaking at 2.8 million concurrent viewers. The biggest ever classical live stream in YouTube’s history. There were more than 28 million viewings from across the globe took place in the first 24 hours thereafter.

MyBroadband reported a significant increase in South Africa’s Internet usage since the start of the COVID-19 lockdown, peaking over 1.1Tbps on the evening of 25 March during President Cyril Ramaphosa’s announcement of the lockdown. Traffic across NAPAfrica’s exchange points reached a record 1.04Tbps the day after. Vodacom, one of South Africa's mobile phone network operators reported a jump of 40-percent since a nationwide lockdown. Afrihost recorded a 44% increase in data usage, compared to usage in January and February, with video streaming the biggest contributor. Vox recorded a 50% increase in fibre-to-the-home traffic. Elsewhere, for example in Kenya, Safaricom noted a 70% jump in data usage during COVID-19 lockdown.

Many believe that experiential learning cannot be done online. Bates (2014) contested this, saying “experiential learning is [indeed] like most design models: it is independent of the mode of delivery. What matters is how well it is done.” He advocates that there is indeed a range of teaching design models enabling the embedding of real world contexts into learning, namely problem-based learning, case-based learning, project-based learning, inquiry-based learning, cooperative (work- or community-based) education, and apprenticeships. Beard, Wilson and McCarter (2007) coined the expression E²-learning with regard to the fusion between experiential-electronic learning (EE-Learning) and e-learning.

While bored and livestreaming, at 01h00, Justin LaBoy, a former professional basketball player and a social media personality, got the idea to recreate a virtual club atmosphere on Instagram for his more than 60,000 followers. He and Justin Dior Combs, an entrepreneur, started the ‘Respectfully Justin Show’. As result of lockdown, bars and strip clubs may not operate, and around much of the world many were forced to close nearly overnight. Thousands of bartenders, bottle service girls and dancers have been left with no income. Many organisations resorted to recreating a digital experience to support members. Magic City, a strip club in Atlanta, started offering ‘virtual lap dances’. Tory Lanez, a rapper, began hosting dance nights, called ‘Quarantine Radio’ for his 7.5 million followers. LaBoy says that exotic dancers immediately requested to be guests on his livestream and his followers loved it. He felt he cannot let them dance for free, and pinned a dancer’s Cash App to the top of the feeds, so that followers could send them money. One dancer, Sasha, who has been featured on the pop-up show said “If it wasn’t for Justin … I don’t know what I would have done or how I would have paid my bills or gotten food in my house”.

Most, if not all, production or work processes, operations, and executions could be filmed and streamed. Students need not necessary be physically present to experience what they need exposure to. If a strip dance or lap dance can be done virtually, why not simulated experiential learning? It need not be costly filming.

https://www.classicfm.com/artists/andrea-bocelli/concert-empty-milan-duomo-cathedral-world-record/

https://www.enca.com/business/vodacom-sees-40-jump-data-usage-people-stay-home

https://www.cnbcafrica.com/news/2020/04/14/kenyas-safaricom-sees-70-jump-in-data-usage-during-covid-19-lockdown/

https://mybroadband.co.za/news/fibre/346757-the-76tb-man-south-africas-biggest-bandwidth-hog-during-the-lockdown.html

https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/10/style/justin-laboy-instagram-strip-clubs-live.html?algo=bandit-story_desk_filter&fellback=false&imp_id=701449925&imp_id=455391584&action=click&module=editorContent&pgtype=Article&region=CompanionColumn&contentCollection=Trending

https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-8210749/Virtual-strip-clubs-popping-Instagram-dancers-raking-18-000.html

Bates, T. (2014). Can you do experiential learning online? Assessing design models for experiential learning. Electronically accessible from https://www.tonybates.ca/2014/12/01/can-you-do-experiential-learning-online-assessing-design-models-for-experiential-learning/

Beard, C.; Wilson, J.P. & McCarter, R. (2007). Towards a Theory of e-Learning: Experiential e-Learning. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, 6(2), 3-15. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/95b4/bf51ed82edf9bb529574d65df250fb595df7.pdf

Online programmes which include work-integrated learning could pose serious pedagogical challenges

An increasing need for the flexibility of fully online study while earning, in order to enhance career trajectories, is prevalent. However, “implementing online learning can pose serious pedagogical challenges particularly when programs contain work-integrated learning (WIL) components”, if not perceived as ‘can’t be done’, say Quinn, Cioffi, Hill, Kor, Longford, Moller and Rathore (2019: 1). Contrary to online learning frequently being perceived as a passive and second class; the practical outcomes are accomplishable.

A wide-dispersion of online students renders it impractical to include a shared physical learning site. Quinn et al. (2019) report, for example, on the creation of an interactive virtual learning environment, in collaboration with construction companies, through significant state funding, portraying the construction of an eight-storey building. This high quality resource is supplemented by “comparatively low-cost environments demonstrating the construction of a residential, industrial, and multi-storey building construction sites”, including “embedded images, explanatory videos and documents which students can interact with” (Quinn et al. 2019). Virtual site visits, “comparable to traditional site visits”, are embedded in online learning materials in order to “motivate students to reflect on and refine their understandings based on the authentic context they are experiencing”.

Quinn et al. (2019) report the benefits construction management, for example, students reap from repeat visits to the same site, namely appreciating “the spatial constraints (e.g. how construction products are related to one another in a particular building site) and temporal constraints (e.g. the dependencies for coordinating subcontractors)” as well as “how these constraints change over the life of the building project”. However, difficulties in aligning the timing of visits to construction sites could result in students developing a piecemeal understanding of the construction worksite. Virtual field trips include, for example, augmented realities; simulations; and learning environments making use of 360-degree images of the construction of a building over time; contribute to a four- dimensional virtual work-integrated learning environment.

Quinn, D.; Cioffi, E.; Hill, S.; Kor, M.; Longford, A.; Moller, R.; & Rathore, P. (2019). Implementing work-integrated learning in online construction management courses. Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice, 16(1). Available at: https://ro.uow.edu.au/jutlp/vol16/iss1/9

Learning from mistakes — ‘selfless respect for reality’

Failure, says Costica Bradatan, “is like the original sin in the biblical narrative: everyone has it. Regardless of class, caste, race, or gender, we are all born to fail, we practise failure for as long as we live, and pass it on to others” (in Everyone fails, but only the wise find humility, 18 August 2016).

Instead of viewing failure negatively, mistakes “ought to inculcate humility”, Bradatan argues and refers to Iris Murdoch’s definition of humility—regarded by him as one of the best and most economical—simply stating: ‘selfless respect for reality’. As humans, our perspectives became much too grand.

Three phases are recommended by Bradatan:

1. We, as individual humans, need to acknowledge of our cosmic insignificance.
2. Once we embraced our insignificance, we need to firmly ground ourselves.
3. “Having lowered an anchor into the world” through the first two phases we “regained an existential equilibrium” and “we can move on to” learn from our mistakes.

Richard Barker commented and stated that “evolution’s agenda is not merely to propel DNA into the next generation, it’s to propel the best DNA into the next generation” and added “indeed, that’s the only benefit to evolution”. Barker also adds that shame serves to silence. If we’re ashamed about our mistakes then we cannot learn from them. Barker argues that we neem to be “open and honest (about the incident)”, and interrogate mistakes. There is a lot of value derivable in learning from mistakes.

Scenario-based or simulated elearning

Potential benefits (and some caution) concerning simulated scenarios through elearning include:

Motivational value for students/participants	The opportunity it offers students to become fully engaged in real-life issues
Increased learning retention	Taking a fraction of the time of on-the-job training / hands-on experiential learning
Risk exclusion, yet realism	Excellent teaching choice in areas which are dangerous or where real-life engagement is not feasible
Readily available	Flexibility with regard to accessibility
Could be most cost effective	But, upfront costs may be daunting

Source: Benefits of scenario-based learning by Desiging Digitally Inc.

The June 2014 talk topic of the Weill Cornell Medical College CPD series, also highlights several benefits involved in simulation-based teaching. However, the article cautions that simulations can be expensive and resource intensive, suggesting a need for evidence to support the use of this learning modality and to sustain access to funding. The article presents the Kern’s six-step approach to curriculum design for simulations, as well theoretical underpinnings of experiential and mastery learning.

Real-world learning opportunities help students increase their understanding

Real-world learning complement the methodological competence of students in applying problem-solving approaches, say Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010). Real-world learning affords students opportunities to critically reflect on, to negotiate and collaborate with academic supervisors and community project partners. Students get the opportunity to turn intellectual concepts and methods into personal practical ability. Learning from addressing real-world sustainability problems exposes students to “where the rubber hits the road”, according to Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010: 311). Students learn from the development of sustainability strategies and projects, within the context of real-life politics, culture, traditions, and existing processes. Real-world scenarios force students to explore and identify accountability; to hold the relevant people accountable; and to accept own accountability with respect to the real-world sustainability project agreement.

Although students are likely to develop key competencies in sustainability from real-world learning opportunities; the key competencies which students need to develop must be made known’ Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010: 313) caution that “the devil is in the details”. The design and implementation of the real-world learning determines the nature and scope of the experience. The “functional and progressive” model of integrating real-world learning into the curriculum comprises a number of loosely structured real-world learning experiences in preparation for the capstone experience. This is illustrated by Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010: 314) in Figure 1 below. The real-world learning is spread over four years. Three factors shape the nature of the learning, namely (1) the role of the instructors to design and facilitate; (2) the level of interaction of students with the partners in the community project; and (3) the different forms of collaboration. There is linear progression. Figure 2 illustrates the capstone module in more detail and Figure 3 indicates how the capstone-module option may help students develop certain key competencies but not necessary all/others.

Brundiers, K.; Wiek, A. & Redman C. L. 2010. Real-world learning opportunities in sustainability: from classroom into the real world. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 11 (4): 308-324.

Sustainability as emerging academic field challenges what is taught and how

If higher education graduates are to cope with society’s sustainability-challenges, universities must provide students with interactive, experiential, transformative, and real-world learning to suitably prepare them; say Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010). The authors undertook a synthesis of literature on sustainability education (an emerging academic field) with the view of determining how real-world learning can contribute to building key competencies in sustainability. Consensus exists that the capacity-uilding pathways of sustainability education should engage the “head, hands, and heart”.

Sustainability education is concerned with complex non-linear problems with long-term implications; that cut across economic, social, and environmental domains; not just on local but global scales; and involve high degrees of damage potential; and therefore urgency. These often manifest as a conglomerate of problems that require sophisticated “post-normal” solutions and elaborate problem-solving techniques; that challenges basic assumptions; and call for systems-thinking, anticipation, and participatory strategy-building models across established disciplines.

Key competencies in sustainability cannot be acquired by being told about sustainable development. Students need to see and work within a living learning place. They need to experience what a sustainable lifestyle means. Learning must focus on real-world problems, exposing students to corresponding real-world settings. A variety of learning models might be considered, for example project- and/or problem-based learning; service learning; and internships. However, not all real-world learning opportunities are appropriate. Some are more appropriate for extracurricular activities; whereas others do not relate well to the key features of sustainability. Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010: 311) present this “overview of key differences among dominant models of real-world learning formats”:

	Project-based learning	Service learning	Internship
Outcomes: what students learn/benefit	Collaborative problem-solving capacity	Education and teaching capacity	Professional working experience; career development
Practices: what students do	Collaborating with partners to develop solution approach	Educating people	Assisting or working on a professional project
Interaction with stakeholder	Two-way knowledge generation (co-production)	One-way knowledge transfer (students to community)	One-way knowledge transfer (employer to student and student to employer)
Integration of theory and practice	Explicit, supervised by faculty and stakeholder	Implicit, not supervised by faculty	Implicit, not supervised by faculty
Impacts on world	Systemic innovation	Support of social innovation and change	Modular innovation

Brundiers, K.; Wiek, A. & Redman C. L. 2010. Real-world learning opportunities in sustainability: from classroom into the real world. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 11 (4): 308-324.

The journal (IJSHE) is published by Emerald Group Publishing Limited in conjunction with Society of University Leaders for a Sustainable Future (ULSF).

Simulation-based learning defined

Learning through simulation may occur in one of two or both ways, namely (a) observation—the simulation serves as illustration of the content to be learned or understood; and (b) direct interaction— learning induced through experience.

Simulation-based learning comprises two parts, namely learning and simulation—the term suggests learning through the use of simulation/s.

• With a simulation one process is imitated by another process (Hartmann, 1996).
• Simulations often focus on the structural aspects of a model rather than the dynamic characteristics, making them relatively static (Hughes, 1999; Grüne-Yanoff & Weirich 2010)
• A simulation is a manifestation of a model, providing a description through a set of intertwined elements (Grüne-Yanoff & Weirich 2010)
• Frasson and Blanchard (2012) concludes after citing the above that simulations entail the action of imitating a model’s dynamics and/or structure with its resulting element; including either static and/or dynamic features.

Frasson and Blanchard (2012) report several features discussed in literature about simulation-based learning opportunities and their classification:

• Realisation—three main groupings of models are differentiated, namely those (a) involving humans; (b) mechanical; and (c) computer enabled.
• Fidelity—the extent to which the model correctly represents—on a continuum from low to high. High fidelity represents more coherently, but do not always provide the best pedagogical opportunities. Low fidelity focus mainly on pedagogically relevant aspects (with fantasy elements possibly added) and as result sometimes more adequate.
• Interactivity—refers to the degree of passive observation versus acting and influence the evolution.
• Immersiveness—is the degree of enabling fidelity and interactivity resulting in accurate real-situational feelings.
• Intelligence—intelligent components often enhances user interaction and allow for various constructive alternatives.

Frasson, C. & Blanchard, E.G. 2012. Simulation-Based Learning. In Seel, N.M. (Ed.) Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning. Springer Science+Business Media.

WIL “is not as intuitive as it may seem”

The 12 points below originates from a summary and explanation by Annie Murphy Paul about a recent report on the science of training. She points out that there are right ways and wrong ways (myths) regarding how to design, deliver, and implement training. I adapted the 12 points to work-integrated learning (WIL):

1. It’s what happens before and after WIL that matters. Universities should clearly communicate to students what the WIL is about and how it relates to curriculum of the qualification and the day one competencies expected from graduates.
2. The WIL guidelines should clearly specify what a student need-to-be master versus learning where and how to find information rather than be expected to retain all information in memory.
3. WIL would be more effective when it’s presented as an opportunity of which the benefits to students are emphasised.
4. Decay of skills acquired during WIL may be reduced by giving students subsequent opportunities to practice the skills and/or refresher orientation upon employment.
5. Workplace mentors could increase the motivation of students by making clear the link between what is being taught during WIL and how it will be used in the careers of students.
6. The best WIL occurs through the practice in the workplace and feedback by workplace mentors — the effectiveness of WIL can be increase by making the process more active and engaging for students.
7. Mentors should be made aware that unstructured practice by students without clear objectives; without relevant stimulation; and without appropriate feedback can teach students wrong lessons. Students “will get the most out of practice when they are provided with constructive and timely feedback that identifies what they may be doing wrong and how to fix it”.
8. Superficial exposure during WIL leads to poor retention and poor transfer; whereas deep learning promotes retention and transfer.
9. There is value—both strategically and emotionally—in teaching students to cope with errors made. Workplace mentors should guide students to correct mistakes made which will help students to understand the task in greater depth and will help them deal with errors on the job.
10. Technology and contemporary gadgetry would not necessary improve WIL. However, if implemented appropriately it may add to the effectiveness of WIL.
11. Left to their own devices, students “may not be knowledgeable or motivated enough to make wise decisions about how and what to learn”, sound guidance is important.
12. The “psychological fidelity—how accurately it evokes the feelings and the responses the worker will have on the job” of simulations is more important than physical fidelity a student will encounter as worker on the job.

Paul, A.M. 2012. Learning on the job: myth vs science (How do we really learn to do our jobs?). A post published 2 July 2012 on Wray Herbert's blog We're only Human.

Salas, E.; Tannenbaum, S.I.; Kraiger, K. & Smith-Jentsch, K.A. 2012. The Science of Training and Development in Organizations: What Matters in Practice. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 13(2) 74–101.

Attributes and learning-styles of students affect their learning

Sidhu (2010: 16) identifies the following attributes that may hinder or improve learning:

• Basic background knowledge of the subject matter / discipline / field of study
• Prior academic performance impacts on a student’s performance
• Degree of exposure to contemporary educational technologies — the use of computer-based learning is enabled if students already acquired PC usage skills
• The impact of the learning styles of students have been extensively researched

Depicted below are Kolb’s as well as Honey and Mumfords learning style models, some of the most well known models:

http://www.businessballs.com/kolblearningstyles.htm

http://www.nonformality.org/2006/04/excuse-misuse-or-abuse/

Kolb’s experiential learning styles are in black, Honey and Mumford’s in red.

http://pmj.bmj.com/content/83/982/518.full

http://rphrm.curtin.edu.au/2000/issue2/outcomes.html

Sidhu, M.S. 2010. Technology-assisted problem solving for engineering education: interactive multimedia applications. Hershey: Engineering Science Reference.

Simulations may achieve the positive impacts and learner motivation of real-world learning

Contextual dichotomy has been found to negatively impact and adversely affect learning. Situated in real-world contexts, on the other hand, has been found to positively impact learning and learner motivation reports Lunce (2006: 37). Although the article referenced below reports on research about simulations in classroom contexts, it contains important pointers that may apply to distance education.

Educational simulations are based on internal model of a real-world systems or phenomena. In order to facilitate learning certain elements, however, may have been simplified or omitted. Lunce (2006: 37) identifies three general types of models on which educational simulations are built:

• Continuous models which are constructed using calculus in order to represent systems with infinite numbers of states.
• Discrete models employing statistics and queuing theory to represent systems with quantitatively discrete states.
• Logical models making use of sets of heuristics, implemented through a high-level computer programming language.

The latter (logical models) are most often used in educational simulations; whereas continuous and discrete models are most often found in scientific and engineering simulations, says Lunce (2006: 37) who groups (p. 38) educational simulations into four categories:

• Physical simulations allow the learner to manipulate variables in an open-ended scenario and observe the results, for example weather patterns in which the student can manipulate certain parameters and observe the outcome.
• Iterative simulations allow for focussing on discovery learning not readily observable in real-time, for example, phenomena from biology, geology or economics; by providing the student with opportunities to conduct scientific research, build and test hypothesis and observe the results.
• Procedural simulations give students the opportunity to manipulate simulated objects with the goal of mastering the skills required to correctly and accurately manipulate physical objects in a real-world setting with the goal of preparing the student for working in a real-world setting.
• Situational simulations model for example human behaviour as a vehicle to allow students to explore different options and decision paths. Situational simulations often employ role playing and are usually designed to be run several times with each participant playing different roles in various iterations. Situational simulations tend to be the most difficult to design due to the open-ended design and complexity of modelling human behaviour and attitudes of individuals or groups in different settings.

The notion fidelity of simulation refers to the extent of accuracy with which the simulation models the real-world system or phenomena. It further refers to the realism of learner interaction facilitated by the simulation as well as the type and frequency of feedback provided. “A well designed simulation can maintain a high degree of fidelity while abstracting or omitting distracting elements that would otherwise be present in a real-world situation”, indicates Lunce (2006: 38).

Lunce L. M. 2006. Simulations: Bringing the benefits of situated learning to the traditional classroom. Journal of Applied Educational Technology, 3(1), 37-45, Spring/Summer, 2006. Accessed via Internet on 18 May 2012 from: http://www.eduquery.com/jaet/JAET3-1_Lunce.pdf.

Doing law as means to learning about law

In the developed, technocratic world people—especially younger generations—became accustomed to virtual realities on PC screens. Interactive PC games offer excitement, insight and fulfilment. Clinical simulations could offer similar stimulus, engagement observation how law works. Brayne, Duncan and Grimes (1998: 173) state aptly “doing law as means to learning about law is different from learning the law by reading it”. Reconstruction of legal incidents through the vehicle of simulations; and the presentation of social problems as law ‘cases’; are but two examples. A legal problem on paper does not contain the uncertainties, emotions and interactions that form part of the real-world realities of, for example, the attorney’s office, the police station or the courtroom.

Brayne, Duncan and Grimes (1998: 174) observes that “simulation is commonly regarded as a valuable part of clinical teaching, but one which is the poor relation of the real-client clinic”, because simulation lacks the “startling and awakening encounters … of coping with people” present in legal practice “who have a need of legal expertise”. On the other hand, simulations can provide opportunities not readily available and can invoke the emotions and flow of adrenalin associated with daily client work.

In undergraduate legal education, simulations would inculcate appropriate behaviours in addition to the realisation that there is more to lawyering than mastery of legal knowledge. Simulations further offer students safe opportunities to experiment and to learn from mistakes.

Brayne, Duncan and Grimes (1998: 183) emphasise that simulation can never be an alternative to real client work, but within a spectrum of teaching methods simulations could contribute to effective law learning.

Brayne, H; Duncan, N & Grimes, R. 1998. Clinical legal education: active learning in your law school. London: Blackstone.

Simulations in context

Simulations have the power to challenge and alter the beliefs, as well as to promote flexibility with regard to decision making and management styles, argue Wolfe and Keys (1997). They emphasise the value of sensitivity to cultural diversity and appreciation for different values and perspectives, particularly in foreign global situations. “Unlike games, where everyone has a role of player with a duty to try to win, simulations require ‘professional behaviour, including professional ethics”, assert Jones (1995: 7). Simulations in group-settings offer experiential and active learning opportunities that are reasonably realistic and psychologically safe learning situations in that in these contexts psychological assumptions can be challenged; perspectives broadened; and critical reflection simulated (Wolfe & Keys, 1997).

A simulation should not attempt to reproduce reality, says Jones (1995: 9-10). The more an attempt is made to reproduce the real world with all the intricate complexities, he cautions, the more unworkable the simulations becomes. He puts forward four essential characteristics, namely:

• Simulation participants each have functional roles to fulfil, including the authority
• Given adequate information about the setting, problem or issue is essential — participants should not be required to invent the key facts (however improvisations and using imagination is encouraged); if participants are required, it is not a well designed simulation
• The lecturer does not play an active part in the carrying out the required action — a simulation is “a NON-TAUGHT event” [emphasis added], during which mistakes are “inevitable and desirable” — best characterised by “what actually goes on in the minds of the participants” (p. 12)
• Simulations are concluded with debriefing and reflection in order to appraise what happened and consolidate the learning

Jones (1995: 14) emphasises a clear differentiation of terminology and caution that wrong word-choices could cause simulations to go terribly wrong, because (wrong) words lead to (wrong) expectations which in turn lead to (inappropriate) behaviour:

Appropriate	Inappropriate
Simulation, activity, event Participant Facilitator (or organiser) Behaviour, function, profession Role (functional) Real-world responsible behaviour Real-world ethics Professional conduct	Game drama, role play, exercise Player, actor, puzzler, trainee, student [Lecturer, tutor], teacher, trainer, instructor Player, acting, staging, puzzling Role (acting a part) Winning (losing) the game Point scoring, having fun Performing the exercise (game, etc)

Jones, K. 1995. Simulations, a handbook for teachers and trainers. 3^rd edition. London: Kogan Page.

Wolfe, J & Keys, JB (eds). 1997. Business simulations, games and experiential learning in international business education. New York: International Business Press.