Confidentiality and privacy are intertwined. Privacy entails deciding what information about self to disclose or suppress and what to make public knowledge. Confidentiality is about non-disclosure and the assurance that privacy is respected. However, privacy and confidentiality are easily compromised through social media. One should keep in mind that the world is characterized by diverse and contrasting viewpoints and values. For example, the WIL of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer (LGBTQ) youth may be adversely impacted through discrimination and social ostracism. Another area of potential WIL discrimination or restriction is female oppression and censorship. While the Free the Nipple Movement is about equality, about desexualization of female breasts, and a mission to empower women across the world, there are many countries where women are required to cover up.
From playing the part to acknowledged diversity
The lyrics (Direct Lyrics, 2016) of the catchy hit ‘7 Years’ by the Danish pop-soul band ‘Lukas Graham’, about growing up in a ‘utopian community’ in Denmark (Silverton, 2016), depicts the strong influence of socialization. The notion ‘socialize’ implies to ‘make fit for life in companionship with others’ to conform. Various worlds of work also socialize newcomers to fit in (or expect conformation), to behave in a way that fits in, to ‘act right’ and to dress appropriately. In South Africa, for example, substantial changes have occurred since the first democratic elections in 1994 with regard to, for example, the racial mix in the workplace. People have become more comfortable about wearing, say, Jewish, Hindu or Muslim regalia to work. However, challenging the prevailing culture requires strength of character, courage, hard work and endurance. Adapting or compromising, by contrast, may cause serious internal conflict and stress, as indicated in the next paragraph.
Mogilevsky (2016) portrays the conflict of a ‘queer’ woman who is out in public holding the hand of a male companion. There is a safety in a way being seen as straight, feminine, the ‘right’ sort of woman, not being harassed or threatened to be ‘turned’ straight. However, there is also the flip side—the conflict of erasure. Years of struggle and joy are psychologically erased, because in that moment nobody knows or cares she is more into women. Being read as straight by others can be painful and personally invalidating.
The Human Rights Campaign (2015: 1)—a substantial American civil rights organization, reports that “the deck is stacked against young people growing up lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender [LGBT] in America” (and anywhere in the world). As result of being socially ostracized, the indifference exhibited by society at large, and even official governmental discrimination; many LGBT teens are disconnected from their homes and neighborhoods. They are left disaffected. Miller (2015) reports that despite significant progress in achieving LGBTQ (note queer added) equality; LGBTQ youth are unfortunately frequently subjected to bullying. Pyne (2014: 1) reports that for decades, children who challenged gender norms were pathologized and treated for mental illness. In recent years “childhood gender non-conformity would seem to be imbued with new meaning” and are regarded by professionals as “gender independent”. There are “a growing number of public voices claiming gender variance as part of human diversity”. Pyne (2014: 1) indicates “a paradigm shift: from disorder to diversity, from treatment to affirmation, from pathology to pride, from cure to community”.
According to Pyne (2014), the term gender independent was coined by a social worker and some parents in the Toronto District School Board. It started as an attempt to describe some extraordinary kids. It describes young people who substantially challenge gender expectations and includes “gender non-conforming, gender variant, gender creative, transgender, and for some Aboriginal children, two-spirit”. Pyne (2014: 1-2) describes three groups as examples of gender independence. Firstly, there are those youth who identify with and are “comfortable with their natal sex, yet who challenge us to expand the boundaries of gender’s well-worn categories”. A case in point would be a boy who likes pink and sparkles and finds other boys a bit dull. He realizes other may make fun of him, but continues regardless; or a masculine girl who is not interested in dolls and homely stuff, but likes the rough. Secondly, there are youth who reject gender differentiation and prefer the in-between space. For example, the main frustration of a particular young person is being asked to ‘choose’ a gender. When pressed, he or she will answer with questions such as “Why do you care? What difference does it make? Would you treat me differently?” Thirdly, there are those youth “who clearly and consistently identify with a different gender than expected”—who believe they inherited the opposite gender body in the womb. Such youth experience a strong urge to see the opposite gender “reflected in the mirror and reflected by the people around them”. Such youth often proceed to gender transition and if feasible a biological sex-change. Pyne (2014: 2) reports on a study of the parents of gender non-conforming children about a mother who asked her daughter (who was born her son) how she knew she was a girl? The answer is profound: ‘I know, because I feel it deep down where the music plays’. It is inhumane to even attempt to ‘turn’ such an individual ‘straight’, yet some prejudicial individuals may attempt to do so.
Public discourse about non-conforming youth dates back to the 1960s. According to Pyne (2014: 2), by the 1980s, a small number of researchers and clinicians had ushered in a new diagnosis (Gender Identity Disorder in Childhood or GIDC) into the third revision of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM III). Although there are still advocates of ‘normative’ gender expression, there is a growing body of scholarly work opposing this practice. Advocates severely critique the diagnosis and reparative treatment of gender non-conformation. Pyne (2014) asserts that the World Professional Association for Transgender Health (WPATH) in 2012 declared ‘treatments aimed at changing gender identity or expression’ unethical. Alternative intervention models were developed which aim to affirm childhood-gender-variance as part of human diversity. It is suggested that CWIE practitioners accommodate gender-variance youth.
According to Pyne (2014), in the 1960s and 1970s social scientists and early feminist researchers began to question perspectives which ties biological sex to social gender practice and prepared the ground for ‘One is not born a woman … but becomes one’. The second wave of feminism advanced the notion that ‘biology is not destiny’. The gay and lesbian rights movement in the 1970s and 1980s confronted public exclusions. In the 1990s, the queer liberation movement questioned perceived normality and disputed the naturalness of gender by arguing that it is something people do rather than something people are. The transgender rights movement further stepped forward and challenged the binary understanding of gender. Biologists added compelling evidence for the existence of more than two sexes in the natural world. Pyne (2014) concludes that ultimately it became increasingly difficult to sustain a position that two distinct and stable sexes and genders (meant as the social mirror of biology) exist. Yet many stubborn individuals do cling to the belief of normative gender assignments at birth.
Based on the implications and Pyne’s (2014: 5) recommendations, it is recommended that CWIE and WIL practitioners and program constituents take note of the need to ‘mind’ their language with regard to gender independent individuals. There is an opportunity to provide for gender variance as part of the diversity of human life in cooperative and work-integrated education (CWIE) and WIL—to reframe gender independence as a potentially positive trait. Biological males may not naturally progress to stereotypical male roles, and biological females may not naturally progress to stereotypical roles of women. Furthermore WIL programs need to make provision for young people transitioning as part of their life cycle; for delayed puberty; and for reversal with cross-sex hormonal treatment. The notion of ‘reasonable accommodation’ with regard to people with disabilities—“any change in the workplace or the way things are customarily done that provides an equal employment opportunity to an individual” (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission)—it is argued, might be extended to LGBTQ individuals. Appropriate minor modifications and adjustments may, for example, include adaptations of previously exclusive male and female toilets. It would not impose disproportionate or undue burden, say, to brief the workplace prior to the placement of an LGBTQ individual to respect and accept the individual’s gender identification. The Human Rights Campaign (2014) equality index for 2015 indicates that some 781 American businesses committed to LGBT inclusion and equality. However, there are no assurances that others, and organizations internationally, would not covertly discriminate against LGBT applicants. It is imperative for gender independent and/or LGBTQ students to realize this and to take note of the next section, which deals with the issue of retaining privacy or voluntary disclosure.
Disclosure versus privacy
According to Mullen et al (2014), the notions confidentiality and privacy are intertwined. Privacy entails an individual’s decision “whether to disclose or suppress” information about self; the individual’s “right to decide on what to make public knowledge”. Confidentiality is about giving assurance that privacy is respected and about non-disclosure of information. Confidentiality is therefore a responsibility with accountability to those about whom information is held. Conversely, privacy is a right individuals may exercise.
Igo (2015: 18) observes that “Americans [and it appears the world at large] are in the midst of an unparalleled privacy crisis”. Surveillance through technological, political, and bureaucratic developments over the past five decades has undermined the privacy of individuals. Igo (2015) asserts that despite legislation to the contrary, privacy is a shrinking sphere owing to, inter alia, criminal entrepreneurial activities by individuals working within large data banks. In the recent past, there have further been numerous incidents of hacking whereby the privacy of thousands had been dishonored.
Igo (2015) maintains that participation in activities such as reality TV is a form of exposure and self-disclosure of privacy. The public nature of social media and the propensity of self-disclosure about personal activities and information, further contribute to privacy and confidentiality being compromised.
Yip and Hsia (2014) postulate that the legality of the confidentiality of attorney–client privilege and client communications is murky in the context of cloud computing. For example, Google scans every email sent or received by a Gmail user, which means such emails have already been disclosed to third parties, which therefore means that privilege has already been waived. Cloud computing includes a broad range of services which enables users to store applications and data on, and access such from, remote computers owned by others, through an Internet connection. Yip and Hsia (2014) caution that courts have consistently held that when a person voluntarily turns over documents to third parties; such a person has no legitimate expectation about the privacy of the information of such documents. Yip and Hsia (2014) make a number of recommendations about ethical use of cloud services which are well worth considering by institutions, companies and students involved in CWIE and WIL. Firstly, before entrusting any confidential information to a cloud vendor, one should first do a due diligence check of the entity and how it conducts its business. Secondly, but of utmost importance, one should ensure that security measures are in place. The cloud vendor’s written policies and procedures pertaining confidentiality of data. The terms and conditions should allow for reasonable access to and control over the data. It should be feasible to completely delete data from the cloud. The vendor should provide reliable security practices such as data encryption, password protection and a contingency plan in the event of a security breach. It is further imperative to periodically review all of the aforesaid. Thirdly, one should consider the importance of performing quality controls, such as access; technical support; limited down-time; reliable back-ups; multiple storage sites in event of disaster; and disaster recovery. A forth consideration is an exit plan and data migration strategy in the event of an announced close-down by the vendor. Fifth and finally, expert advice might be invaluable.
Kovacs (2016) observes that looking for employment (or a WIL placement) is dramatically different today from how it was done two decades ago, in that job hunts often begin and end online. While some argue it is easier to search for and apply online there are sophisticated threats lurking on internet. Kovacs (2016) advises that the creation of an online presence has become particularly important, if not a necessity. For WIL students, she offers six tips to protect their privacy while searching online for placement opportunities or jobs. Regarding contact information, Kovacs (2016) submits that people looking for a job generally try to make it as easy as possible to be contacted by providing cell phone numbers, home addresses, personal emails, etc. She cautions that it is extremely dangerous to do this online and recommends limiting contact information. She further recommends setting up an email account specifically for job hunting. Regarding dispersing one’s resume or curriculum vitae widely in the hope of being noticed, Kovacs (2016) cautions that selective distribution safeguards privacy. She recommends searching for reputable sites that offer a privacy policy and a privacy seal like TRUSTe or BBBonline. A few quality sites are preferable to many poorly managed ones. With regard to prevention of identity theft, Kovacs (2016) cautions the limiting of disclosure of personal information in digital form. She urges one not to give information away on internet. A legitimate prospective employer would not compromise the security of candidates. Regarding social media postings, Kovacs (2016) recommends exercising caution not jeopardizing current earnings by disclosing the fact that one is seeking another job. In order to keep track, Kovacs (2016) recommends that a record should be kept where resumes are posted; and that resumes should subsequently be removed. Without keeping a list it might be difficult to remember. Kovacs (2016) cautions against scammers trawling the internet for personal information. They prey, among others, on job seekers. One should ensure that a recruiter or employer social media account is genuine before clicking on the links provided, especially if an unsolicited message is received. One should avoid falling prey to phishing and not offer confidential information. One should be on the lookout for spelling and grammatical errors, inappropriate capitalization, and poor punctuation—these are telltale signs of a potential scam message. Always examine the sender’s email and shortened URLs if the aim is perhaps to hide the actual identity. Scammers often use the logos of legitimate companies to trick people.
According to Strauss (2016), with regard to potential online employment discrimination, social media companies should be more cognizant of the information they collect, as well as how such information is made available. Social media companies should consider the harm that the information they collect could cause in contrast to the potential benefits that may be derived from this. Strauss (2016) advocates that companies should have explicit recruitment policies which restrict background searches to workplace-relevant material only. Preferably, job applications should be anonymized, with numbers substituted for names, to ensure that evaluators will not be tempted to check social media before deciding whom to invite for interviews. Strauss (2016) further believes that government agencies should more aggressively test the compliance of companies with the existing laws aimed at preventing discrimination.
The theme of equality, discrimination, privacy versus disclosure, and assertion of individual identity is discussed in more detail in the next section. Students are urged to weigh up the potential consequences of expression of perceived controversial views.
Equality through desexualization of female breasts
According to Zeilinger (2015), #FreeTheNipple is about advocacy of equality for women. Equality of the genders means that men and women should both receive equal treatment. The breasts of women are not the problem; the sexual objectification of women is (Zeilinger, 2015). In 2012, filmmaker Lina Esco launched a movement targeting sexist public nudity laws. Part of the #FreeTheNipple campaign concerns the right of women to claim what their breasts and nipples mean to them; in opposition to how men and much of society sexualize the breasts of women. Breasts do not hurt children; on the contrary, breasts feed children. Sexual objectification of women involves women being viewed primarily as the object of male sexual desire, instead of as a whole person. #FreeTheNipple is about asserting the rights of women by, inter alia, being permitted to be topless. In 1936, the former puritanical status quo in, for example, the United States, gave way to permitting men to go on to beaches without a shirt (it had previously been illegal). Eight decades later, it is still illegal in 37 (74%) of the 50 US states for a woman to go topless, including breastfeeding in public. In less tolerant places, such as Louisiana, an exposed nipple can result in a woman receiving a jail sentence for up to three years or a fine of $2,500 (Free the Nipple Movement). Acosta (2016) writes as follows: “Yes, in 2016 women can vote and wear pants. Many large corporations have finally loosened their pantyhose restrictions. But in some states, women still have to hide their nipples in public while men don’t.” The Free the Nipple Movement, including the film, is an equality movement with a mission to empower women across the world. However, there are many countries where women are required to cover up, even completely. Such contradictions may negatively impact the WIL of young women, especially with regard to potentially restricting both the WIL opportunities for young women and job opportunities. Acosta (2016) mentions the ‘Outdoor Co-ed Topless Pulp Fiction Appreciation Society’ as part of the larger Free the Nipple Movement. It is a New York City group of brave and bold body positive, mainly women, who love good books and meet fairly regularly. They meet outdoors on sunny days, topless, picnic-style, in parks for al fresco readings. They post and tweet regularly about their events. The society posted the following on its webpage: “It was eighty degrees this Monday [18 April 2016] and sunny … And, man oh man did it feel good. Is there a better feeling than that first time you peel your clothes off outdoors under the hot sun after a long, cold winter?“ Why should such privilege be restricted to men? However, Topless Pulp Fiction (2015) tweeted a photo of two topless women, with a black box over the face of one and text stating, “Face blocked for job reasons. Not every boss is understanding”, which reflects an important career consideration. In winter, they meet indoors to keep the momentum going. They have a substantial online following.
Patriarchy or ‘rule of the father’ (as figure) is a socio-political environment in which mature males predominate, while women and children are expected to be obedient. It is in the interest of enlightened female WIL students to have awareness; and to give consideration to how to deal with it, because it remains a reality in many countries. Another sensitive issue is religious prejudice and intolerance, which is the topic of the final section.
Fear, religious discrimination and intolerance
Salhani (2016) recently reported that a senior student at the University of California, Berkeley, attended a dinner at the Los Angeles World Affairs Council. While waiting for a Southwest Airlines flight prior to departure, he called his uncle to tell him about the dinner and ended the phone call by saying ‘inshallah’—a common term used in Arabic which corresponds in meaning to James 4:15 or Hebrews 6:3 in the Bible, namely ‘God willing/permitting’. After concluding the call, he noticed a female passenger eyeing him suspiciously. Shortly after he was removed from the flight and searched. The humiliation and fear he experienced brought back memories of having escaped Iraq. Khairuldeen Makhzoomi, a 26-year-old Iraqi refugee, came to the United States in 2002 when his diplomat father was killed. The FBI questioned him because the fellow passenger thought he had said ‘shahid’, which translates to ‘martyr’.
According to Salhani (2016), Makhzoomi is the latest of several persons removed from flights because of Islamophobia. Since the Paris attacks in 2015, several Arab, Muslim or Sikh passengers have been removed, or barred from boarding, planes for ‘suspicious activity’, such as conversing in Arabic, viewing the news on their cellphones, or refusing to remove a turban.
Telegraph Reporter (2016) similarly reports about Laolu Opebiyi, a British man aged 40, a Christian, born in Nigeria and now living in London, who was removed from an easyJet plane by armed officers after a passenger saw a WhatsApp conversation on his phone and misread the title of the group 'Isi men' as 'Isis men'. Laolu Opebiyi explained that 'Isi' is a short version of the Bible proverb “Iron sharpens iron, and one man sharpens another”, which is often used by Christians to describe the value of prayer and discussing the Bible.
These are a few recent examples of how fearful the world has become. Academic institutions placing students need to be aware of this and discreetly alert relevant students to such possibilities. Students, in turn, need to take note and realize that such actions are not aimed at them personally but are inspired by fear.
Acosta, D. 2016. The fight to free the nipple. The New York Times, posted online 26 January 2016. Retrieved 1 February 2016 from http://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/25/fashion/free-the-nipple-video.html?smid=tw-nytimes&smtyp=cur&_r=0Direct Lyrics. 2016. 7 Years. Retrieved 16 April 2016 from http://www.directlyrics.com/lukas-graham-seven-years-lyrics.html
Human Rights Campaign. 2014. Corporate Equality Index 2015—rating American workplaces on lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender equality. Retrieved 2 October 2015 from http://www.hrc.org/campaigns/corporate-equality-index
Human Rights Campaign. 2015. Growing up LGBT in America. Retrieved 2 October 2015 through http://www.hrc.org/youth-report or directly from http://hrc-assets.s3-website-us-east-1.amazonaws.com//files/assets/resources/Growing-Up-LGBT-in-America_Report.pdf
Human Rights Campaign. The HRC Story. Retrieved 2 October 2015 from http://www.hrc.org/the-hrc-story/about-us
Igo, S.E. 2015. The beginnings of the end of privacy. The Hedgehog Review, Spring 2015, 18-29.
Kovacs, N. 2016. Six tips to maintain your privacy while searching for jobs online. Posted 19 January 2016 on Norton Protection Blog, Norton Community, Symantec. Retrieved 3 February 2016 from https://community.norton.com/en/blogs/norton-protection-blog/6-tips-maintain-your-privacy-while-searching-jobs-online?om_ext_cid=hho_ext_social__SYMGlobal_RTM_TWITTER_Norton%20Protection%20Blog&linkId=20916266
Miller, H. 2015. Supporting LGBTQ youth in honor of National Bullying Prevention Month. Retrieved 2 October 2015 from http://www.hrc.org/blog/entry/supporting-lgbtq-youth-in-honor-of-national-bullying-prevention-month
Mogilevsky, M. 2016. 5 Ways to maintain your queer identity in a relationship people read as straight. Everyday Feminism, 29 March 2016. Retrieved 14 April 2016 from http://everydayfeminism.com/2016/03/maintaining-queer-id/?utm_source=twitter&utm_medium=social&utm_campaign=SocialWarfare
Mullen, P. R., Griffith, C., Greene, J. H., & Lambie, G. W. (2014). Social media and professional school counselors: Ethical and legal considerations. Journal of School Counseling, 12(8). Retrieved 30 September 2015 from http://www.jsc.montana.edu/articles/v12n8.pdf and also http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1034737.pdf
Outdoor Co-ed Topless Pulp Fiction Appreciation Society. About webpage. Retrieved 18 April 2016 from https://coedtoplesspulpfiction.wordpress.com/about/
Outdoor Co-ed Topless Pulp Fiction Appreciation Society. Post Sunday, Monday. Retrieved 20 April 2016 from https://coedtoplesspulpfiction.wordpress.com/
Pyne, J. 2014. Gender independent kids: A paradigm shift in approaches to gender non-conforming children. Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 23(1), 1–8; doi:10.3138/cjhs.23.1.CO1
Salhani, J. 2016. Iraqi man removed from Southwest flight for speaking Arabic. In Think Progress, posted 16 April 2016. Retrieved 18 April 2016 from http://thinkprogress.org/world/2016/04/16/3770159/iraqi-banned-from-flying/
Silverton, P. 2016. Lukas Graham single '7 Years': A catchy song about growing up in a 'utopian community' in Denmark is a massive hit. Independent, Monday 25 January 2016. Retrieved 16 April 2016 from http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/lukas-graham-and-7-years-a-catchy-song-about-growing-up-in-a-utopian-community-in-denmark-is-a-a6833481.html
Strauss, S. 2016. Op-Ed applying for a job? Better delete your social media accounts. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 10 January 2016 from http://www.latimes.com/opinion/op-ed/la-oe-0107-strauss-employment-discrimination-online-20160107-story.html
Telegraph Reporter. (2016). British man forced off easyJet plane after passenger saw message about 'prayer' on his phone. In The Telegraph, 4 March 2016. Retrieved 18 April 2016 from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/12182922/British-man-forced-off-easyJet-plane-after-passenger-saw-message-about-prayer-on-his-phone.html
Topless Pulp Fiction. 2015. Tweet 15 December 2015. Retrieved 18 April 2016 from https://twitter.com/ToplessPulp/status/676595997527642112
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Procedures for providing reasonable accommodation for individuals with disabilities. Retrieved 18 April 2016 from https://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/internal/reasonable_accommodation.cfm
Yip, E. & Hsia, M.E. 2014. Confidentiality in the cloud: the ethics of using cloud services in the practice of law. The Computer & Internet Lawyer, 31(12), December 2014, 19-25.
Zeilinger, J. 2015. Here's what the free the nipple movement has really accomplished. Posted 21 August 2015 on Identities.Mic. Retrieved 17 April 2016 from http://mic.com/articles/124146/here-s-what-the-free-the-nipple-movement-has-really-accomplished#.JHSX69XQs
