Learning in vivo

Each credit equals 10 notional hours of learning

There is an argument that an average student should not be required to devote more than 10 hours for each credit. A 12 credit work-integrated learning module, it is argued, should therefore take 120 hours, if not:

• The curriculum is wrong
• The assignment is incorrect
• The WIL assignment is too long
• The assignment is not good enough

The argument disregards the time it takes for a student to settle in and to be orientated. The argument does not take into consideration the learning derived from various alternatives in real life. Neither does the argument take into consideration the reality that often a volume of mundane activities are required for an achievement. Few work places would be on the ready awaiting a student’s focussed exposure. In most real life situations work goes on and students learning from being present and making a contribution of some kind.

The advice from the bearer of the news is “make peace with it and move on…”

Patricia Anne Greening remarked on Facebook: "It also ignores such factors as outside distractions, poorly prepared or poorly presented material; and the state of the learner's health, and mental condition (e.g. sleepy, undernourished; stressed)."

Hi Thomas:

I do not agree that one credit equals 10 hours of learning.  Some years ago in Australia, there was an attempt by the government to enforce a similar rule and in the end they gave up for the reasons outlined on your blog.  It does not make sense.  I am not sure what can be learned in a short time in any work place.  The other issue is that if you focus on hours and credits, then you miss the learning bit.  What are the learning outcomes expected in work place learning?  How long does it take to achieve that learning?  What is the evidence for that learning?  And how long does it take to integrate the learning in the workplace with academic learning?

Cheers,

Lesley

______________________________
Lesley Cooper
Acting Principal/Vice-President
Wilfrid Laurier University
Brantford Campus
73 George Street
Brantford, Ontario   N3T 2Y3
CANADA

Hi Lesley, Thomas and others,

One of the issues for work placements papers is that it does not neatly fall into the ‘typical paper template’.  The typical point baring paper template is a one size fits all model – which may work well for academic taught papers but does not for placement papers, but nevertheless that is the default model.  We have the same situation here at Waikato, where our placement papers are 20 points (supposedly 200 hours of learning) whilst students are at least 400 hours in the workplace.  We found it best to avoid drawing direct links to points and hours in the workplace – and most people recognise that placements are different.  

However, if forced in situation of drawing links to hours on placement and credit points, the first question to ask is, ‘is every hour in the workplace a quality learning hour?  We would argue not.  Probably initially it is, and perhaps also at the end of the placement, especially when engaging in placement report writing.  However, there will be fair chunks of time where it probably isn’t – or rather where there will be ‘dilute learning’ or where the learning is ‘spread out’.   So perhaps it is best to craft an argument that links points to hours of quality learning rather than hours in the workplace.  The later will allow for the longer placements needed for a better overall learning experience for the students, whilst the former is too restrictive and assumes that learning always occurs.

kz

Dr Karsten Zegwaard The University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand

Attributes and learning-styles of students affect their learning

Sidhu (2010: 16) identifies the following attributes that may hinder or improve learning:

• Basic background knowledge of the subject matter / discipline / field of study
• Prior academic performance impacts on a student’s performance
• Degree of exposure to contemporary educational technologies — the use of computer-based learning is enabled if students already acquired PC usage skills
• The impact of the learning styles of students have been extensively researched

Depicted below are Kolb’s as well as Honey and Mumfords learning style models, some of the most well known models:

http://www.businessballs.com/kolblearningstyles.htm

http://www.nonformality.org/2006/04/excuse-misuse-or-abuse/

Kolb’s experiential learning styles are in black, Honey and Mumford’s in red.

http://pmj.bmj.com/content/83/982/518.full

http://rphrm.curtin.edu.au/2000/issue2/outcomes.html

Sidhu, M.S. 2010. Technology-assisted problem solving for engineering education: interactive multimedia applications. Hershey: Engineering Science Reference.

Simulations may achieve the positive impacts and learner motivation of real-world learning

Contextual dichotomy has been found to negatively impact and adversely affect learning. Situated in real-world contexts, on the other hand, has been found to positively impact learning and learner motivation reports Lunce (2006: 37). Although the article referenced below reports on research about simulations in classroom contexts, it contains important pointers that may apply to distance education.

Educational simulations are based on internal model of a real-world systems or phenomena. In order to facilitate learning certain elements, however, may have been simplified or omitted. Lunce (2006: 37) identifies three general types of models on which educational simulations are built:

• Continuous models which are constructed using calculus in order to represent systems with infinite numbers of states.
• Discrete models employing statistics and queuing theory to represent systems with quantitatively discrete states.
• Logical models making use of sets of heuristics, implemented through a high-level computer programming language.

The latter (logical models) are most often used in educational simulations; whereas continuous and discrete models are most often found in scientific and engineering simulations, says Lunce (2006: 37) who groups (p. 38) educational simulations into four categories:

• Physical simulations allow the learner to manipulate variables in an open-ended scenario and observe the results, for example weather patterns in which the student can manipulate certain parameters and observe the outcome.
• Iterative simulations allow for focussing on discovery learning not readily observable in real-time, for example, phenomena from biology, geology or economics; by providing the student with opportunities to conduct scientific research, build and test hypothesis and observe the results.
• Procedural simulations give students the opportunity to manipulate simulated objects with the goal of mastering the skills required to correctly and accurately manipulate physical objects in a real-world setting with the goal of preparing the student for working in a real-world setting.
• Situational simulations model for example human behaviour as a vehicle to allow students to explore different options and decision paths. Situational simulations often employ role playing and are usually designed to be run several times with each participant playing different roles in various iterations. Situational simulations tend to be the most difficult to design due to the open-ended design and complexity of modelling human behaviour and attitudes of individuals or groups in different settings.

The notion fidelity of simulation refers to the extent of accuracy with which the simulation models the real-world system or phenomena. It further refers to the realism of learner interaction facilitated by the simulation as well as the type and frequency of feedback provided. “A well designed simulation can maintain a high degree of fidelity while abstracting or omitting distracting elements that would otherwise be present in a real-world situation”, indicates Lunce (2006: 38).

Lunce L. M. 2006. Simulations: Bringing the benefits of situated learning to the traditional classroom. Journal of Applied Educational Technology, 3(1), 37-45, Spring/Summer, 2006. Accessed via Internet on 18 May 2012 from: http://www.eduquery.com/jaet/JAET3-1_Lunce.pdf.

Replacing natural experiments by computer simulations

Simulations as viable alternative to doing experiments on natural systems, offer anchor points to integrate scientific discovery learning or inquiry learning with instructional support in educational settings (for example distance) where for a number of reasons actual experiments may not be feasible, because (Van Joolingen & De Jong, 2003: 1):

• the natural system may not be accessible due to expense of the measuring equipment required or non-availability
• of safety hazards, such as radioactive samples, toxical chemical substances or populations of certain bacteria
• performing the experiments may be unethical, for example in the case of experiments with livestock
• time scale of experiments on natural phenomena may not fit with the educational timeframe— some experiments take days, months or even years to complete or may happen so fast that it is hard to visualize the processes the learning is about
• experiments may consume rare resources

“Simulations are computer programs containing an executable model of a natural or other system, capable of computing the behavior of the modeled system by means of dedicated algorithms and presenting the results of these computations to the user” (Van Joolingen & De Jong, 2003:2).

However, caution Van Joolingen and De Jong (2003: 3-4) the creation of computer simulations embedded in instruction is out of reach of most lecturers; and off-the-shelf simulations often do not match the specific teaching requirements. Creating simulations require specific skills for the various steps in the process:

1. Creating the model that would drive the simulation—Capability to do this requires expertise of either a programming language or a special simulation language; expertise in the domain simulated and knowledge of the target language; and in the case of a general purpose programming language one must also create the algorithm to simulate the model.
2. Creating the learner interface to the simulation—Including visual representation, using graphics representing domain elements, graphs, numbers, etc. Capability to create interfaces requires expertise of the available tools as well as to create the domain specific graphics within the interface.
3. Creating the instructional design of the environment from the perspective of the learner— Instructional design expertise, such as which activities to be performed; the goals of such activities; what information/explanations would be needed at specific moments (discipline knowledge); knowing/awareness of frequently occurring misconceptions; and which instructional interventions should form part of the simulation?
4. Integrate the parts of the simulation environment to a complete system in order to create a coherent integrated simulation— This means that all parts need to co-operate and that the interactions between simulation model, learner interface and all instructional interventions should be smooth and stable. This step requires programming skills in order to create an efficient and transparent environment.

The remainder of the referenced article discusses SimQuest—a simulation authoring system developed as free and open software by University of Twente for the designing and creating of simulation-based learning environments for discovery learning—downloadable for free.

Van Joolingen, W.R., & De Jong, T. (2003). SimQuest, authoring educational simulations. In: T. Murray, S. Blessing, S. Ainsworth. Authoring Tools for Advanced Technology Learning Environments: Toward cost-effective adaptive, interactive, and intelligent educational software. pp. 1-31. Dordrecht: Kluwer. Accessed from Internet 18 May 2012 from: http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/19/06/76/PDF/SimQuest-VanJoolingenDeJong.pdf

Instructional design for simulation

Literally, instructional design means “a set of events that facilitate learning” (instructional) and “a creative model” (design)—it includes a number of systematic processes to plan and create situations and/or events that would enhance the learning of individuals. Underlying instructional design are learning theory paradigms, based on various schools of thought, for example behaviourist—representing those believing that learning results in changed behaviour; cognitive—the proponents who believe adding of new concepts and ideas result in learning; and constructivist—those that believe that “learners construct knowledge for themselves” (Sidhu, 2010: 12-14).

There are hundreds of instructional design models. However, Reigeluth (1999, cited by Sidhu, 2010: 14) indicates that four major characteristics are common to instructional design, namely:

• “Design orientation,
• Identification of methods of instruction and situations,
• Methods of instruction that can be broken into more detail components methods, and
• Choice of Probalistic Methods”

Design theory is important because it renders “a vision of instruction early in the design process”—an ends of “how learners would be different as result of” the learning. The ultimate user plays a significant role, advocates Banathy (1991, cited by Sidhu, 2010: 14) who calls for a “much greater use of the notion of user-design”. Theory further provides guidance to instructional design at three levels according to Reigeluth (1999, cited by Sidhu, 2010: 14 and emphasis added):

• “Methods that best facilitate learning under different situations,
• Learning tool features that best allow an array of alternative methods to be made available to learners, [and]
• Systems features that best allow an instructional design team to design quality learning tools.”

Sidhu (2010: 14-15) prefers the ADDIE Model of design: Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation.

Sidhu, M.S. 2010. Technology-assisted problem solving for engineering education: interactive multimedia applications. Hershey: Engineering Science Reference.

Placement of students for practice-based experiences is insufficient

The topic of this post partially reflect one of the five key knowledge contributions derived from Professor Stephen Billett’s ALTC National Teaching Fellowship on curriculum and pedagogic bases for effectively integrating practice-based experiences. The five include (emphasis added):

• “Firstly, it is necessary to include the personal processes of experiencing and reconciliation what is experienced by learners in each of the settings”;
• “Secondly, consideration of how students engage with the experiences and pedagogic practices is central to the richness of learning”
• “Thirdly, merely providing practice-based experiences for students is insufficient unless those experiences are enriched through preparation, engagement and opportunities to share and reconcile what has been contributed by these experiences”
• “Fourthly, the findings highlight the importance of enacting pedagogic practices that are most likely to develop engaged and critical practitioners”
• “Fifthly, the need to engage, prepare and extend students as active and agentic learners is central to the effective integration of experiences across practice and higher education settings, their ability to engage in professional practice and their becoming effective critical and reflexive practitioners”.

Work integrated learning (WIL) is defined as “the process whereby students come to learn through experiences in educational and practice settings and reconcile and integrate the contributions of those experiences to develop the understandings, procedures and dispositions, including the criticality and reflexivity, required for effective professional practice”.

The curriculum includes “the kinds of learning experiences in practice settings and higher education institutions and how they are organised, sequenced and enacted”. Sub-categories of curriculum are identified, namely:

• “Intended curriculum – what is intended to occur by sponsors or developers in terms of educational goals (i.e. what should be learnt) and learning outcomes as a result of the curriculum being implemented.”
• “Enacted curriculum – what is enacted as shaped by the resources available, the experiences and expertise of teachers and others, their interpretation of what was intended, their values and the range of situational factors that shape students experiences.”
• “Experienced curriculum – what students experience when they engage with what was intended through what is enacted, and how they learn through that experiencing, even that which is unintended by those who plan and enact the curriculum.”

Billett, S. 2011. Curriculum and pedagogic bases for effectively integrating practice-based experiences (final report). Australian Learning & Teaching Council (ALTC).

This work is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Australia Licence. Under this Licence you are free to copy distribute, display and perform the work and to make derivative works. Download Billett-S-Griffith-NTF-Final-report-2011

It is important that learning on work experience placement is understood

Eames and Cates (2011: 41) point out that there is a scarcity of research concerning cooperative and work-integrated education about “the educational outcomes from, and processes in, work placements”; as well as “understanding about learning in the work placement”. They argue (p. 42) that “understanding how learning occurs” during work-integrated learning placements would help legitimise workplace experience as legitimate aspect of cooperative programmes as educative. There is way too much emphasis on employer ratings and student papers concerning their work-integrated learning placements “in order to award credit”. Too little effort is devoted to “finding out what the students are really learning” from workplace experiences—“credit is not simply given for work experience” but should be given for the “learning [that is] resulting from work experience”. Eames and Cates (2011: 42) therefore consider it important that learning on “work experience [placement] is understood” in order “that appropriate curricula, pedagogy, and assessment can be designed and implemented”.

Eames and Cates (2011: 41) remark that research and development has mainly been pragmatically applied-descriptive and evaluative—what constitutes the successful operation; the outcomes of work placements; career clarification for students; enabling recruitment of candidates perceived suitable; collaboration with work-integrated learning hosts; completion of study-related projects; and attraction of students to programmes.

Eames, C. & Cates, C. 2011. Theories of learning in cooperative and work-integrated education (pp. 41-52). In R.K. Coll & K.E. Zegwaard (Eds.). International handbook for cooperative and work-integrated education (2^nd ed.). World Association for Cooperative Education Inc.

Download EamesC+CatesC_Theories_of_learning_in_cooperative+work-integrated_Education

http://www.waceinc.org/handbook_orderform.html

A ludic (playful) learning space promotes deep learning

Alice Kolb and David Kolb (2010) introduced the concept of ludic—or playful—learning space, wherein deep learning is achieved through the integration of intellectual, physical, moral, and, spiritual values.

What are the characteristics of spaces where playful behaviours are thriving? Essentially three namely: it is free, it entails stepping out of “real” life, and it is bounded in space and time. Play is a very seriousness activity (contrary to what some may believe) taking place within a “consecrated spot” mentally and physically; with specific rules; and within a limited time frame—the spielraum (play space).

Identifiable visual, auditory, tactile, or olfactory signals serve to indicate that “what follows is play” or to maintain social play.

Ludic learning spaces provide opportunities for individuals to be enriched within a free and safe space; to play with their potentials and in turn commit to learn, develop, and grow. Ludic learning spaces open up possibilities for individuals to become intrinsically motivated to reinvent themselves. Deep learning entail fill integration of the four Kolb-modes of the experiential learning cycle, namely experiencing, reflecting, thinking, and acting. This process, whereby knowledge is created through a combination of transformation of experience and grasping, is what learning is about.

During the past 40 years of research on experiential learning theory (ELT) play—for example, games, role plays, or outdoor adventure training—retained importance. Huizinga (in Kolb & Kolb, 2010) advocates that humans emerge not as Homo sapiens, man who knows, but primarily as Homo ludens, man who plays.

A tension exists between the Greek terms agon (contest) and paidia (play). A duality-dynamic related to dominance and submission co-exists. Even with children behavioural differences occur between the epistemic-mode versus the ludic-mode: during the period of epistemic play children are serious and focussed with intense, attentive investigation of, for example, all aspects of the toy. However, when the investigation is over, they proceed playfully—in the ludic-mode they are relaxed and apply the knowledge acquired. The two modes relate to the different ways the brain processes information: the epistemic behaviour corresponds to the left hemisphere of the brain (the abstract, symbolic, analytical, rational, and logical); and the ludic behaviour is associated with the right hemisphere (the synthetic, concrete, analogical, non-rational, spatial, intuitive, and holistic). Play fulfils the need of the child’s ego to master different aspects of his life and an integrative process of the limbic system and the frontal lobe of the neo-cortex. Sensory stimuli are transformed and integrated into meaningful thoughts and behaviours.

Play exemplifies experiential learning in three fundamental ways: first, it encourages learners to take charge of their own learning based on their own standards of excellence. Secondly, equal value is placed on the process—play does not happen staring at the scoring board—and the outcome of learning. In the third place, the (Kob) experiential learning cycle is fully engaged in that players come back to the familiar experience with a fresh perspective. The recursive nature of the play further gives continuity for experience to mature and deepen.

Kolb, A.Y. & Kolb, D.A. 2010. Learning to play, playing to learn: A case study of a ludic learning space. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 23 (1), 26-50. Access onlined from Emerald.

Experiential training in distance education for socially vulnerable persons

Combating poverty and social exclusion calls for more flexible forms of training and skills development of vulnerable groups such as lone parents. The European Community defines lone parent families as those in which under aged children grow up with one parent. The absence of the other parent could be due to for example death, divorce, neglect, or casual absence.

When devising effective education or training programs for lone parents the barriers confronting these individuals must be considered and measures developed to overcome them. Primary barriers are low self-esteem; diminished personal quest due to unpleasant circumstances; lacking information and desire to enrol for training; limited accessibility due to family commitments; inadequate training methods, techniques and principles appropriate to their circumstances; and vague relevance of programme content to their needs, interests and characteristics. International adult education literature the personal experiences of adults must inform the design of learning opportunities and that continuing adult education more efficient when a hybrid or blended education approach is offered. In addition to class room teaching/training the following methods are encouraged: distance education; experiential learning; learning by doing; self-learning; collaborative learning; and adaptive learning.

Emphasis on the notion that people are not mere receivers of new knowledge and experiences, disharmony is used as a driving force for learning. Past lived experiences and current perspectives of social reality is contrasted with what potentially could be. Out of this interpretation of disjuncture learning can be derived. Experiential learning principles and student-centered techniques, such as brainstorming, role-playing, simulations, group exercises and case studies provide socially vulnerable persons to draw from previous experiences and knowledge, and to share these with members of the rest of the group in order to find solutions to problems.

Distance education, through Internet and personal computer, enable lone parents to engage in educational programmes. Technology allows chatting with one or more participants, through text, sound and even video. Web casted scenarios in the form of case studies or role plays enable participants to develop capabilities through analysis and reflection.

Papadakis, S; Fragoulis, L & Phillips, N. 2008. Supporting lone parents: experiential training techniques in distance education. Development and Learning in Organizations, 22 (5), 9-11. Electronically accessed from Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1477-7282.

Online classroom support pre-service teacher education

Teaching is complex, requiring in excess of 3000 decisions each day in the classroom, reports Ferry and Kervin (2007). This poses serious challenges to pre-service teacher education, aggravated by the theoretical education often fail to prepare students for the practicalities of the classroom. Simulated (virtual) classrooms are seen as a means to prepare students for their future role as teachers.

Ferry and Kervin (2007: 190) reports that a team of five University of Wollongong lecturers and two research students work together for a year to produce a funding proposal. A further six months got devoted to plan the development of the simulation. The development of the simulation comprises a number of stages/processes:

Step	Description		Duration	Budget
1	Planning the simulation — the development of: Inputs and outputs to guide the user Story to guide user		Nine (9) months	$5 000 for teaching relief
2	Using the teacher-created script to shape prototype version 1 of the software: Physical classroom organisation Classroom management Teaching and learning The development and incorporation of embedded tool ‘thinking space’		Twelve (12) months	project manager, teaching relief, programming & graphic design
3	Trial of the simulation software		Two (2) months	$10 000 project manager, teaching relief & programming
4	Refining the software		Nine (9) months	$60 000 project manager, programming & graphic design
5	Authenticating the virtual kindergarden experiences		Six (6) months	$10 000 project manager
6	Trial of the software		Three (3) months	$5 000 project manager, teaching relief & programming
		Totals:	18 & 41 months	$190 000

Stella^TM had been chosen during the planning phase as architecture for the simulation— “STELLA® offers a practical way to dynamically visualize and communicate how complex systems and ideas really work” (ISEE Systems, Inc.). The project-team further started the ‘story’—the teacher narrative for the simulation with the following basic flow:

Teacher organises the day		Tasks before the class starts		Learning & teaching experiences		End of literacy L&T

Two distinct cycle typess (management; plus teaching & learning) were identified to incorporate into the STELLA® software:

Management cycles	Teaching and learning cycles
1. The organisation of the classroom	5. Sequencing episode
2. The start of the day	6. Modelled reading episode
3. The late arrival of a student	7. Modelled writing episode
4. Random decisions	8. Retell of a familiar story episode

Ferry, B & Kervin, L. 2007. Developing an online classroom simulation to support a pre-service teacher education program. In D Gibson; C Aldrich & M Prensky. 2007. Games and simulations in online learning: research and development frameworks (pp 189 – 205). Hershey: Information Science Publishing.

ISEE Systems, Inc. STELLA Systems Thinking for Education and Research. Download STELLA_productsheet

Nine events of instruction — Gagné

Gagné’s “Nine Events of Instruction”, referenced in Becker (2007: 27 – 29) support the instructional design of five areas of learning capabilities:

• Verbal, both oral and written, information
• Intellectual skills, including manipulation of symbolic information as well as problem solving
• Creative cognitive strategies and control over own learning
• Physical motor skills
• Personal attitudes influencing choice

Gagné’s Nine Events provide for conditions of learning, as well as guidelines for selection of appropriate media:

1. Reception, attracting and gaining attention
2. Creating expectancy by making the objectives known
3. Retrieval of prior knowledge by stimulating recall of former learning
4. Presentation of the stimulus, encouragement and challenge (selective perception)
5. Offer self-contained learning—learning guidance provided within (semantic encoding)
6. Elicit interactive performance or responding
7. Reinforcement by providing feedback
8. Assessment of performance (retrieval)
9. Generalise by enhancing retention and transfer of learning

Becker, K. 2007. Pedagogy in commercial video games. In D Gibson; C Aldrich & M Prensky. 2007. Games and simulations in online learning: research and development frameworks (pp 21 – 47). Hershey: Information Science Publishing.

Instructional design mediates between learning theory and educational practice

In 1900 John Dewey already asserted the need for a mediating science between learning theory and educational practice; reports Akilli (2007: 7); yet the origins of instructional design dates back to World War II.

Akilli (2007: 9) reports further that since the 1990s six factors significantly impacted instructional design practices, namely:

• Performance technology movement
• Constructivism
• Electronic Performance Support Systems (EPPSc)
• Rapid prototyping
• Increasing use of Internet for distance education
• Knowledge management endeavours

Akilli (2007: 8) conveniently uses the term instructional design/development (IDD) because it covers the width and depth of activities involved in analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation. Although the number of IDDMs published increased the quality did not. An instructional design & development model (IDDM) includes at least five aspects (p. 9):

• Analysis of the setting and learner [student] needs
• Design of a set of specification for an effective, efficient and relevant learner [student] environment
• Development of all learner [student] and management materials; and
• Evaluation of the results of the development both formatively and summatively; and
• Distribution and monitoring of the learning environment across various settings, over an extended period of time

It is believed that some IDDMs only fit “narrow, well-defined, and static scenarios, because they are process-orientated rather than people-orientated, and use clumsy, bureaucratic, and linear approaches” (Akilli, 2007: 10). Instead IDDMs ought “to reflect the dynamic, complex, and non-linear nature of the design process” (p. 11). Adoption of “new scientific models, such as hermeneutics, fuzzy logic, and chaos theory” are suggested.

• Hermeneutics addresses the socio-historic context of individuals decoding and creating meanings.
• Chaos theory seeks self-similarity and self-organisation evident from repeating patterns at different complexity levels, such as a fractal.
• Fuzzy logic entails belief that reality can seldom be well represented in a bivalent manner; instead reality is multivalent with several in-between values; it is probabilistic; with continua measures.

Akilli, GK. 2007. Games and simulations: a new approach in education? In D Gibson; C Aldrich & M Prensky. 2007. Games and simulations in online learning: research and development frameworks (pp 1 – 20). Hershey: Information Science Publishing.

Simulations are interactive abstractions of real-life

Akilli (2007: 4) defines a simulation “as an interactive abstraction or simplification of some real life … or any attempt to imitate a real or imaginary environment or system”.

Although a substantial body of literature accumulated about simulations, Akilli (2007: 5) observes that it is still vague if games and/or simulations influence the learning of students in a positive way. Some literature does, however, describe the effects on:

• Discovery learning strategies
• Problem solving skills
• Computer usage skills
• Intellectual, visual and motor skills of students
• The engagement and interactivity of students
• Motivation to take responsibility for own learning

Evidence suggests, according to Akilli (2007: 6) “the use of games as instructional tools” in 3000 B.C. in China. Despite re-entry of use in the educational context in 1950s; games and simulations only became part of formal instructional design in the 1970s. However, it is reported that instructional designers encounter two problems:

• Absence of available comprehensive design paradigms — addressed through the publication referenced
• Lack of well-designed research findings — existing are mainly perceived reactions of students

Akilli, GK. 2007. Games and simulations: a new approach in education? In D Gibson; C Aldrich & M Prensky. 2007. Games and simulations in online learning: research and development frameworks (pp 1 – 20). Hershey: Information Science Publishing.