Learning in vivo

Regulations for workplace-based learning (WPBL) programme agreements

The Gazetted (RSA, 2018: 43) Regulations define ‘workplace based learning’ as an “educational component of an occupational qualifications that provides students with real life work experiences where they can apply academic and technical skills and increase the prospect of employability”. It further defines ‘workplace based learning programme’ as an “intervention as contemplated in an occupational qualification [through] which a person internalizes knowledge, skills and competencies and gain insights through exposure to work by achieving specific outcomes to enhance employability”.

The Gazetted (RSA, 2018) WPBL agreement, Annexure A (pp 54-65), Part C, section 6 (p. 63), differentiates nine (9) types of workplace-based learning programmes, defined in Part B – Definitions (pp 54-55), namely:

1. Apprenticeship — a period of WPBL culminating in an occupational qualification for a listed trade
2. Learnership — a period of WPBL culminating in an occupational qualification or part qualification
3. Internship for the ‘N’ Diploma — a period of WPBL undertaken as part of the requirement for the ‘N’ Diploma
4. Candidacy — a period of WPBL undertaken by a graduate as part of a requirement for registration as a professional in the required professional designation as stipulated by a professional body
5. Student internship: Category A — a period of WPBL undertaken as part of the requirement for the Diploma, National Diploma, Higher Certificate or Advanced Certificate as a vocational qualification stipulated in the Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework (HEQSF)
6. Student internship: Category B — a period of WPBL undertaken as part of the requirement for a professional qualification
7. Student internship: Category C — a period of WPBL undertaken as part of the requirement for the Occupational Qualifications of the Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO)
8. Student internship — a period of WPBL for a person who is enrolled at an education and training institution for a SAQA registered qualification and may include vacation work
9. Graduate internship — a period of WPBL for the purposes allowing a person who has completed a post-school qualification to gain workplace experience or exposure to enhance competence and/or employability. This may include academic staff with existing qualifications that need industrial exposure or experience.

Part C (pp. 55-) of the agreement addresses the terms and conditions:

• Declaration of the parties — learners, employers and providers
• Rights & duties of the learner (pp. 55-56), the employer (pp. 56-57), and provider (pp. 57-58)
• Completion or termination of the agreement (p. 58)
• Learner details (pp. 59-60) and contract of employment (p 63)
• Employer details (pp. 60-61)
• Provider details (p. 62)
• Signatories (pp. 64-65)

The Gazetted Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) – WPBL programme agreement Regulations (RSA, 2018: 40) states that the purpose is to provide for:

• adding to the definition of ‘learning programme’ the terms ‘candidacy’ and ‘internship’, which are recognised forms of work-based learning (WBL);
• “the preparation, submission, registration and management of work-based learning programme agreements, and [for] the management of disputes and certain administrative arrangements”; and
• the repeal of the former 2007 Learnership Regulations

The Regulations, applicable to all workplace-based learning (WPBL) programmes, comprise six (6) chapters, including the following content:

1. Definitions (1) and Application (2)
2. Parties to the agreement (3) and their rights and duties (4)
3. Registration of agreement, including submission of agreement form (5), conditional placement of the learner (6), requirements of registration (7), additional requirements for a group of employers (8), and for a group of providers (9), registration decision by SETA (10), amendment of agreement (11), substitution of party (12), suspension of agreement (13), termination of agreement (14), clarification of learner achievements (15), and completion of agreement (16)
4. Registering learnerships (17), amending registered learnerships (18), and deregistration of learnerships (19)
5. The referral of disputes (20)
6. Administrative provisions such as recordkeeping by SETAs (21), repeal of regulations (22), transitional arrangements (23), and short title and commencement from 1 April 2019 (24)

There is further an annexure B, namely an ‘application to register a learnership’.

Republic of South Africa (RSA). (2018). Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) workplace based learning programme agreement regulations. Department of Higher Education and Training. Government Gazette No 42037, 16 November 2018. Skills Development Act (Act 97 of 1998). Electronically accessible from https://www.dhet.gov.za/gazetteTEST/Workplace%20Based%20learning%20Programme%20Agreement.pdf

Huddling, stand-up gatherings, and after-action reviews

Reflection on experiences plays a significant role in learning. After Action Reviews (AARs), also called a debriefs or huddles, are considered significant ways to not only learn, but also improve. AARs provide participants with the opportunity to reflect on what was supposed to happen, what really happened, what went well, what did not, and what can be derived (learned) from the mistakes and achievements (Reiter-Palmon et al. 2015). Learning from workplace-based learning (WPBL) and internships can be enhanced by creating AAR spaces, stand-up gatherings or huddling opportunities.

A Huddlecraft (2022) ‘re-tweet’ that appeared in my timeline, on 2 December 2022, caught my eye and prompted further exploration:

“A wave of new Huddles for 2023 🌊

Huddles: purposeful peer groups who come together to learn, create or act, in response to a theme that sets them alight 🔥”

“There is no clear standard definition of a ‘huddle’, but it can be described as short, face-to-face [or virtual] meeting held multiple times a day” say Aase et al. (2021: 2). The ‘World of Work Project’ (2019) explain as follow:

Huddles or stand up meetings are short, sharp, focused, daily team meetings. They involve the whole team and take place around a physical or virtual information center. When done well they improve the performance and engagement of those attending. They can take place face to face, or virtually using a platform like Zoom.

Where integration of teamwork is crucial, such as in interprofessional healthcare, daily huddles, for example, in hospitals, between nurses and physicians, have been nurturing effective performance and reducing adverse events say Aase et al. (2021). Huddles offer the opportunity to reflect on the previous day’s workflow and demands, as well as previewing special requirements and preferences pertaining work/cases scheduled for the day ahead. Huddles could also enable reflection on workplace-based learning (WPBL) and internship experiences, thus enhancing the learning.

“A huddle is an unofficial gathering, or informal meeting, of two or more individuals, convened to discuss substantive issues regarding the work of one or more of the participants”, an encounter of focused interaction, explain Quinn and Bunderson (2016, 387). They add that “huddles may offer learning benefits that formal interaction does not, but the informality of huddles may also pose obstacles to learning that are different from the obstacles that emerge in formal interactions. To capitalize on the learning benefits of huddles, huddle participants need to avoid or overcome those obstacles while still leveraging the unique learning benefits of a huddle”. Huddles are seen as particularly productive events for learning, because of the informality, which free participants from structural limitations and cultural inertia. Huddles “allow expertise (rather than position) to guide who talks” and ideally “address issues when they occur and not when they are scheduled to be discussed” (p. 388). Huddles could similarly be introduced into the learning management system (LMS) to facilitate sharing experiences derived from workplace-based learning modules. Academia responsible for workplace-based learning modules are encouraged to consider the literature extracts below and implement those ideas that appear relevant.

The first step, say Astion (2013), in creating a huddle, is to ensure the relevant participants are involved, including senior management. Frequency and time management are key to keeping a huddle focused. Their huddles were restricted to 15 minutes, with limited time allocation for succinct reporting. A magnetic whiteboard with coloured magnets and possibly brief, clarifying statements with a marker pen reflect the state of operations. The colour-coding provides an immediate overview (or dashboard). Huddles since cascaded to lower operational level, and “are fast becoming an important component of daily management”, say Astion (2013). Academia are encouraged to use their discretion to structure huddles with regard to grouping of students and frequency.

Huddles are differentiated from other types of interactive events regarding the dimensions of task focus and formality. In comparison to social interaction, huddles are high on task-focus but low on formality; ceremonies in contrast are high on formality but low on task focus; and casual talk low on both formality and task focus, but the focus high on task content. Huddles are likely to include dimensions such as problem-solving, information-sharing, and collaboration. Whereas meetings typically include these, meetings in contrast with huddles, are both high on formality and task focus. However, huddles may include aspects of formality such as the Japanese Honda plant huddles (called ‘Y-gaya’) “often called by people in formal authority (a high level of social distance) but could also happen spontaneously, on the site of problems, with people speaking based on the relevant knowledge they had rather than based on their position” (p. 389). Huddles further often include some structure such as turn-taking, syntax, and scheduling. However, the fact that huddles are informal, more spontaneous participation could be expected, including more humour, and invoking less authority.

“Huddles are short 5- to 15-minute briefings designed to give staff opportunities to plan daily tasks and roles, stay informed, review events, and share plans to ensure well-coordinated” work performance, say van Bockxmeer (2022: 256). Huddles may serve as conduit for highlighting “concerns, sharing information, celebrating success, and reinforcing common goals”. Huddles further “encourages reflective practice, reorients groups to unseen biases, and builds new strategic capabilities”. Huddles may concentrate on specific themes and high-relevance topics.

There are some challenges associated with huddles indicate van Bockxmeer (2022: 257), such as the duration, retaining meaning for all participants, and discussions derailing. There is “no single approach that best suits all disciplines, rosters, and teams”. Some situations may call for more frequent huddles, whereas taking ‘detailed discussions offline into smaller focus groups’ could be advantageous.

 “A safety huddle is a meeting held among [district nurses] DNs, allied health professionals, specialist nurses, administrative staff, community matrons and healthcare assistants, also known as the wider MDT” [wider multidisciplinary team] say Gray (2020: 446). “Safety huddles were designed and implemented in community nursing in 2016, to ensure all key harms were addressed daily, whereby patient and staff safety could be ensured … The aim of safety huddles is to improve and document clinical handovers within community nursing teams, using a template to evidence the handovers”. The SBAR tool is a “situational briefing tool used to successfully convey patient information to other health professionals in a more succinct manner”—"the SBAR stands for Situation, Background, Assessment and Recommendation” indicate Gray (2020: 447). Academia may effectively make use of the SBAR notion to facilitate reflection of experiences derived from workplace-based learning, namely that each student briefly sketches the situation, provide essential background, give own assessment and present own recommendation. A brief discussion of each such presentation could further enhance learning.

Huddles are commonly used for meetings in many fields, say Cao et al. (2022). The format of their daily virtual operational huddle to monitor key quality metrics, is structured on the common elements of a laboratory huddle reported by Astion (2013), plus “a novel electronic communication application that was interfaced with the laboratory information system” (Cao et al., 2022: 379). At the inception of the huddle, notes were made on a whiteboard, which evolved to a formatted Excel spreadsheet.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, academics at the University of Derby Online Learning (UDOL) “started short online gatherings every morning, which are being referred to as ‘morning huddles’” say Kotera et al. (2020: 239). Microsoft Teams (MS Teams) meetings were scheduled daily from 09h00 to 09h15, and a link sent to the academics “in the Inter-Professional portfolio (encompassing nursing, counselling, social work, and environmental studies), as recurring calendar invites with no set agenda”., however, with the primary purpose had been to support each other’s well-being during isolation. Conversations were friendly, with a relaxed tone, and aimed at inclusivity. The MS Teams chat facility supplemented audio (and where feasible video) interaction, to share information and humour. Many joined before 09h00 for casual conversations, and often continue beyond the 15 minutes. The huddles ended when relevant issues were exhausted, with participants offering each other best wishes for the day. Academia may consider using online huddles in a similar way for students to form stand-up gatherings in order to support one another during dispersed workplace-based learning.

After Action Reviews (AARs) were developed in the 1970s by the US Army, used by the military and para-military teams for decades to learn from experiences in the field, and increasingly used in other contexts. Reiter-Palmon et al. (2015: 323) report “that team effectiveness can be enhanced by 20% when teams conduct AARs”, compared to not conducting AARs and debriefs. Furthermore, “that using trained facilitators improved the effectiveness of AARs significantly compared with those conducted without a facilitator”. For AARs to provide effective learning, three aspects are essential, say Reiter-Palmon et al. (2015: 324), namely:

• (i) Allowing for data verification and feedback, which in turn allow for calibration; as well as allowing for task-related information sharing, contributing to correct approach identification
• (ii) The AAR framework should permit team members opportunity to mindfully and critically reflect (error-friendly learning culture); to grasp why things work (successes) or not (mistakes and near misses); and to challenge implicit assumptions
• (iii) Provide a supportive structure for establishing common goals and action plans to prevent similar re-occurrences

Academia may similarly structure, or scaffold, reflection sessions to enhance workplace-based learning. ‘Scaffold’, as noun, means “a temporary structure for holding workers and materials during the erection, repair, or decoration of a building”, or “any raised framework”, and as verb “to furnish with a scaffold or scaffolding”, or “to support by or place on a scaffold” (Dictionary.com). ‘Framework’, as noun, means “a basic structure, plan, or system, as of concepts, values, customs, or rules”. “In education, scaffolding refers to a variety of instructional techniques used to move students progressively toward stronger understanding”, state the Glossary of Education Reform (2015). It serves as descriptive metaphor of providing successive levels of temporary support, which like physical scaffolding, get erected and incrementally removed when it served its purpose. ‘Instructional scaffolding’ means the processes or support provided to “students in order to enhance learning and aid in the mastery of tasks”, by “systematically building on students’ experiences and knowledge as they are learning” (IRIS Center, 2022).

Aase, I., Tjoflåt, I. & Hjorthaug Urstad, K. (2021). Using the ‘huddle’ to enhance interprofessional teamwork among nursing students through a podcast: a qualitative and exploratory pilot study. (BioMed Central Ltd) BMC Nursing, 20 (article #235). Electronically accessible from https://bmcnurs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12912-021-00747-4

Astion, M. (2013). new model for patient safety, daily laboratory huddles—what a great idea! American Association for Clinical Chemistry (AACC), Clinical Laboratory News. Electronically accessible from https://www.aacc.org/publications/cln/articles/2013/april/psf-huddles

Cao, J., Dowlin, M., West, A., Mutandiro, C., Mpwo, M. & Singh, IR. (2022). A daily operational huddle and a real-time communication application improve efficiency of laboratory processes. Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, 146(3), 379–385. Electronically accessible from https://meridian.allenpress.com/aplm/article/146/3/379/466484/A-Daily-Operational-Huddle-and-a-Real-Time

Dictionary.com. ‘Scaffold’ https://www.dictionary.com/browse/scaffold and ‘Framework’ https://www.dictionary.com/browse/framework

Glossary of Education Reform. (2015). Scaffolding. Great Schools Partnership. Electronically accessible from https://www.edglossary.org/scaffolding/

Gray, T. (2020). Safety huddle in a community nursing setting British Journal of Community Nursing, 25(9), 446-450. Electronically accessible from https://www.britishjournalofcommunitynursing.com/content/professional/safety-huddle-in-a-community-nursing-setting

Huddlecraft (2022). https://www.huddlecraft.com/ Tweet electronically accessible from https://twitter.com/Huddlecraft/status/1598284708034420736

IRIS Center (2022). What Is Instructional Scaffolding? The IRIS Center Peabody College, Vanderbilt University, Nashville. Electronically accessible from https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/sca/cresource/q1/p01/

Kotera, Y., Green, P., Rhodes, C., Williams, A., Chircop, J., Spink, R., Rebecca Rawson, R., & Okere, U. (2020). Dealing With Isolation Using Online Morning Huddles for University Lecturers During Physical Distancing by COVID-19: Field Notes. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 21(4), 238-244. Electronically accessible from https://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/4843/5434

Quinn, R.W. & Bunderson, J.S. (2016). Could We Huddle on This Project? Participant Learning in Newsroom Conversations. Journal of Management, 42(2), 386–418. Electronically accessible from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0149206313484517

Reiter-Palmon, R., Kennel, V. Allen, J.A. Jones, K.J. & Skinner, A.M. (2015). Naturalistic decision making in after-action review meetings: The implementation of and learning from post-fall huddles. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 88(2), 322–340. https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/joop.12084

van Bockxmeer, J. (2022). A reflection on daily huddles in BC primary care teams. British Columbia Medical Journal, 64(6), 256-7. Electronically accessible from https://bcmj.org/articles/reflection-daily-huddles-bc-primary-care-teams

World of Work Project. (2019). Huddles or stand-up meetings: A simple introduction. Electronically accessible from https://worldofwork.io/2019/04/huddles-stand-up-meetings-what-why-and-who/

Enhancing graduate employability through work-integrated learning could be a risky business

Extensive research has been done about how work-integrated learning (WIL) could enhance graduate employability, indicate de Zwaan and Grant-Smith (2022: 497). However, despite the apparent benefits it can be “… a risky business for universities’ due to the strategic, financial, legal and reputational risks it presents, particularly in being able to guarantee a sufficient supply of high quality work placements” say de Zwaan and Grant-Smith (2022: 502). Including prerequisite WIL may “result in a significant increase in administrative responsibilities for higher education institutions” they caution. Furthermore, “because students on work placement are not employees and therefore are not subject to many of the statutory protections employers are obliged to provide to employees”.

“Successful work placements depend on a strong tripartite relationship between the student, the WIL workplace, and the university”, which “needs to be based on a common understanding of the learning goals of the placement” and requires “careful management of both student and employer expectations of placements”, remark de Zwaan and Grant-Smith (2022: 502). Furthermore, “close communication between the university and host organization, including an honest appraisal of the placement student’s needs, abilities, and weaknesses, so that the placement program can be built around addressing or managing the impact of these” is needed. “Host employers [further] need to understand universities’ resource limitations … and must be prepared to provide appropriate on-the-job training and supervision if a student is to benefit from the work placement”. For WIL to succeed, “universities must be prepared to take a proactive role in negotiating with employers on their responsibilities as WIL workplaces”, as well as “to review partnerships with employers who have had repeated complaints raised against them”. The aforementioned “can only be achieved via a high level of institutional oversight, particularly in screening the suitability of potential WIL workplaces”. It is also necessary, say de Zwaan and Grant-Smith (2022: 502) to educate “students about their workplace rights and responsibilities prior to placement”, as well as “providing appropriate complaints mechanisms for students to voice concerns regarding their placements without fear of reprisal”.

Different forms of WIL are distinguished. “A useful typology for distinguishing between types of work experience conceptualized along two key dimensions: the degree of participatory discretion and the purpose of the experience” is, for example, reflected in Table 2 (from de Zwaan & Grant-Smith, 2022: 498). Completion of a work placement (also labelled an internship) as part of a degree programme normally counts as credits towards the qualification. Supervised work placements involve application of learned theories at a host workplace, and the development of skills. The duration varies depending on the discipline, and the registration or accreditation requirements of the profession, ranging from a few notional hours up to extended periods. There is furthermore significant diversity regarding how work placements are organized and monitored. In fields such as education, nursing, or health sciences with long traditions of clinical training (or ‘WIL’) and relatively large numbers of students; high levels of institutional oversight (including identification, accreditation of suitability of sites, and entering into agreements) and the matching of students with suitable opportunities, take place. However, many do require that students actively engage (like recruitment practices) in the process of securing a placement where the institution would advertise available placement opportunities and students apply, involving somewhat of a competitive application process. Some institutions, however, require that students take direct responsibility for securing and negotiating their own placements.

Although “unpaid work placements are increasingly being positioned as an employability panacea … recent research has shown that students participating in work placements can experience significant levels of psychological stress, social isolation, study/life imbalance and be exposed to exploitative or unlawful work practices”, state de Zwaan and Grant-Smith (2022: 500). ‘Panacea’, the ancient Greek goddess of healing, originates from panákeia equivalent to panake-, stem of panakḗs ‘all-healing’ (pan- ‘all’ + akḗs ‘a cure’). Unpaid internships, however, do not necessary take into consideration the “potential negative impacts on participants’ social, psychological, and economic wellbeing” say de Zwaan and Grant-Smith (2022: 500). “Financial stress and hardship can also impact students’ emotional and physical health and general wellbeing as students who are struggling financially experience more stress, anxiety, and depression”, they add. Work placements furthermore require significant time commitments from students, as well as significant risks of conflict with regard to the various roles of students.

Diversity in student populations may present several challenges regarding equity in high-quality work placements, “particularly for women, those from lower socio-economic backgrounds, and [also] international students” say de Zwaan and Grant-Smith (2022: 501). Often women are “disadvantaged due to their caring responsibilities”, and “placements during normal working hours can increase childcare costs or require alternative care arrangements to be made”. “When placements are located far from home the transport burden can be greater for women based on their mobilities of care”, as well as possibly safety concerns. “Students who are financially independent of their parents” or relatives; or “relying on paid employment to survive” or taking care of siblings; may incur considerable financial stress. These inequalities “means that students who possess significant financial capital or parental support may be more likely to be able to afford to undertake extended placements or engage in placements away from their local area”, which in turn may further impact post-graduation employment opportunities”. “Cultural differences, language skills and racism” may adversely impact international placements.

Service learning is proposed by de Zwaan and Grant-Smith (2022: 503-4) as a practical alternative to work placements. By providing services to disadvantaged individuals and non-profit organisations while supervised offer important learning opportunities and client interaction. “Service learning is distinguishable from volunteering or pro bono work in that its primary focus is on reciprocity and learning while meeting the needs of a community”.

de Zwaan, L. and Grant-Smith, D. (2022) More than mandatory work placements: The role of work-integrated learning in preparing financial planning graduates for the professional year. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 23(4), 495-508. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_23_4_495_508.pdf.

Dictionary.com https://www.dictionary.com/browse/panacea

A taxonomy of undergraduate work-integrated learning practices

The constructed taxonomy (Figure 1 below) is derived from examples and suggestions obtained from four stakeholder groups, say Neall, Cooney and Oppert (2022: 518). The taxonomy maps a range of practices in accordance two axes (or principles for effectiveness); namely vertically ‘task authenticity’ (how closely a task resembles professional level challenges) and horizontally ‘proximity to industry’ (how closely the context resembles a professional environment). The mapped practices may “be conducted virtually, practically and on an individual or group level depending on the resources available”. The four main stakeholder groups include (a) psychology graduates, (b) industry leaders, (c) higher education work-integrated learning staff, and (d) psychology accreditation council staff. The aim of the research had been to better support undergraduate psychology students to successfully enter into meaningful employment.

A cohort of Australian psychology graduates were struggling to make successful transitions to field-specific employment. Although there exists a growing demand for mental health/psychological support, there is also a deficit of appropriately trained professionals. These psychology graduates are a unique allied health cohort in that the undergraduate programme includes understanding of human physical and emotional behaviour and cognition. Graduates may enter a wide range of industry sectors, such as promotion of health, marketing, human resources, coaching, policy making, and community services. However, graduates often struggle to gain meaningful employment. Neall, Cooney and Oppert (2022: 509) believe that a “systematic integration of authentic WIL [work-integrated learning] into undergraduate psychology degrees may offset this lack of industry exposure”. They indicate that WIL has proven to develop of a range of professional and personal outcomes, including increased employability and work readiness through theory-to-practice application and professional skill development, among others.

Work-integrated learning (WIL) encapsulates a wide range of practice-based and experiential learning models and modes, such as work-based learning, project-based work, service learning, volunteering, internships, clinical placements, simulations, fieldwork, and practicums. The quality of WIL is dependent on robust industry partnerships, adequate preparation, active and authentic engagement, sound supervision, feedback, debriefing of students in order to improve work readiness in students.

Neall, A.M., Cooney, O. & Oppert, M.L. (2022). Enhancing employment outcomes for psychology graduates: Developing a taxonomy of work-integrated learning. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 23(4), 509-525. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_23_4_509_525.pdf

Graduate internships distinguished from work placements or other curricular activities

Graduate internships are “employment experiences of finite duration, normally assumed to have a learning component to them, undertaken in the early stages following graduation” say Hunt & Scott (2020: 465), who emphasise delimitation, “because there is no agreed definition of an internship”. Conflating graduate internships with work placements is not helpful, because the latter are normally undertaken whilst studying. Although ‘internship’ opportunities are widely advertised, no such employment status, for example, exists in UK law.

Academic literature recognises the importance of a ‘clinical placements’ (medical terminology for work-integrated learning) in graduate nursing programs. During clinical placement students may, for example, choose the nature of placement based on clinical interest. The objective of clinical placement is the acquisition of advanced practice nursing (APN) skills, increased understanding of the APN role, and development APN competencies, which “include direct comprehensive care, optimizing health system, education, research, leadership, consultation, and collaboration” indicate Cretu and Stilos. (2021: 494). During placement post-graduate students could further “build networks, advance their personal and professional development, and validate their motivation and desire to pursue a particular professional area of” APN. Preceptorship, a nursing education term for supervision and mentoring, plays a significant role with a learner-centred teaching approach and philosophy, incorporating “scientific knowledge, evidence-based practice, reflection and knowledge transformation, communication engagement, and possession of a respectful and responsible attitude” say Cretu and Stilos. (2021: 495). Such preceptoring provides ongoing encouragement and support. Students learn “by doing, questioning, reflecting, and engaging in discussions with patients and healthcare professionals, capturing the APN competencies whereby a fusion of knowledge and clinical skills happened in real-time”.

“Internships and field placements are a critical component of public health education in that they help ensure that future public health workers are able to apply theory and concepts to practice” say Dreyzehner; Williams and Harkness (2017: 10S), who indicate that collaboration between academic institutions and public health agencies is required to identify successfully develop competencies required in the field of practice. They caution that considerable time and resources from public health departments are needed to make these practice-based field experiences successful.

Hunt & Scott (2020: 465) remark that “graduates are increasingly called upon to exhibit additional markers of employability over and above educational qualifications” and that work placements, internships and other extra-curricular activities (ECAs) are various means to setting oneself apart and enhanced employability. However, they cite Perlin’s (2012) publication ‘How to earn nothing and learn little in the brave new economy’ and remark that evidence exists “that some internships amount to little more than exploitation with unpaid interns carrying out routine tasks that would otherwise have fallen to paid members of staff”. They mention that research “point to significant differences between paid and unpaid internships in terms of perceived development, with unpaid internships viewed as less developmental”. Furthermore, that “unpaid internships generally do not appear to confer long-term career advantages in the same way that HE work placements do” and caution against “those resorting to unpaid internships becoming ghettoised in relatively precarious employment paths”.

Cretu, E. & Stilos, K. (2021). The value of a post-graduate clinical placement for nursing students. Reflections in education, in Canadian Oncology Nursing Journal, 31(4), 494 – 499. Electronically accessible from http://canadianoncologynursingjournal.com/index.php/conj/article/view/1233

Dreyzehner,  J.; Williams, C. & Harkness, E. (2017). More than just an intern: utilizing the post-graduate medical education model to increase the value of field placement experiences for public health program graduates. Pedagogy in Health Promotion, 3(1_suppl), 10S-12S. Electronically accessible from doi:10.1177/2373379917698698

Hunt, W. & Scott, P. (2020). Paid and unpaid graduate internships: prevalence, quality and motivations at six months after graduation. Studies in Higher Education, 45(2), 464-476, Electronically accessible from https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2018.1541450

Perlin, R. 2012. Intern Nation: How to earn nothing and learn little in the brave new economy. New York: Verso.

Unpaid internships are different in a variety of ways and pose certain risks

“Generally speaking, internships are considered a great path to better career success”, say Rothschild and Rothschild (2020: 5). Internship participation appears to be escalating in importance among current students, with some 84% of students voiced the intention to intern before graduation. The merits and drawbacks of unpaid internships relative to paid internships were explored by Rothschild and Rothschild (2020), who report that in the United States an estimated 1.5 million internships occur annually, of which about half are unpaid, and 38% occur at for-profit companies. The number of unpaid internships fluctuates in relation to economic circumstances, with notable increases during downturns because recent graduates are hoping to either develop a connection with a potential employer, or to acquire employable experience. Some argue that unpaid internships are necessary to gain an advantage in the highly competitive job market. There appear to be a prevalence of participation in unpaid internships among students in the humanities and social sciences, and by women, compared to men and STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) students.

Documented research reflects a perception of lower levels of satisfaction by unpaid interns with their internship experience, who “feel they learned less than their paid counterparts” (Rothschild and Rothschild, 2020: 3). An explanation given is that “unpaid interns may spend a greater proportion of their time doing clerical work and less time on professional duties than paid interns. If it is true that unpaid interns carry out more menial tasks than paid interns, then they are not receiving the same benefits of experiential learning as those receiving compensation, an area of potential criticism for unpaid internships.” However, unpaid internships are defended with the argument that the value is derived from the skills acquired and the development, justifying the lack of financial compensation. However, this is refuted by a propensity towards routine and menial tasks, instead of developing professional skills through meaningful work.

Employers advocate the completion of an internship as one of the best for students to have on their resumes, because it tends to be an important consideration, if not the most, when making hiring decisions. Participation in an unpaid internship is especially significant, because of the positive impact, more so than volunteer work or employment in an unrelated field. Although employers generally reported not to observe a difference in performance of unpaid versus paid interns, but remark that those interns who get an academic credit for completion of an internship, appear to be more accountable and demonstrate more concern about their level of performance. “This substantiates the theory that unpaid internships are most beneficial for all parties involved if the intern at least receives academic credit for their work” say Rothschild and Rothschild (2020: 3).

Literature suggests, according to Rothschild and Rothschild (2020: 4), that participation in an unpaid internship may in the short term adversely impact students. Whereas paid interns are often offered employment prior to graduation, unpaid interns seldom do. Conversely, unpaid interns often appear to “take longer to find their first job following graduation than even those who do not participate in internships at all”. Furthermore, those “individuals who participate in unpaid internships are more likely to pursue post-graduate degrees than their counterparts receiving compensation” has been observed. A possible reason is the pedagogical conception that an unpaid internship may serve the purpose of “a stepping stone to additional career options”. More reassuring is that “the long-term career prospects for students who engage in unpaid internships are more promising”.

There are some significant drawbacks associated with unpaid internships, indicate Rothschild and Rothschild (2020: 5). One such is “that they effectively disbar and exclude low income individuals from participating” in that “unpaid interns often may not have the means to provide for themselves while working for free” and thereby broadens the ever-widening gap between the wealthy and the poor. Another potential drawback is the potential lack of employment related legal protection for unpaid interns.

Rothschild, P.C. & Rothschild, C.L. (2020). The Unpaid Internship: Benefits, Drawbacks, and Legal Issues. Administrative Issues Journal: Connecting Education, Practice, and Research, 10(2), 1-17. Electronically accessible from: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1289868.pdf

Concerns about, and standards for, internships

“Internships have assumed an increasingly important role in the pathways that promise to lead from education … [among others] into paid jobs in a wide range of professions and other occupations” say Stewart, Owens, O'Higgins and Hewitt (2021: 335). Internships are generally “undertaken as part of, concurrently with, or after a formal programme of education and training”, and might be called “a traineeship, placement or practicum”, or something different in a particular context or location.

An internship might be part of the curriculum of a qualification of an education or training institution; a certification requirement of a professional body; “created and advertised by an organization for its own purposes” (Stewart et al., 2021: 335); or even the result of an intern’s own initiative. Interns might be sourced, or placements facilitated, by a broker or intermediary; directly by the education or training institution concerned; or by the intern her or himself. An internship might take place in the intern’s home country, or internationally.

An internship “may seek to impart, enhance or offer the opportunity to utilize particular skills or knowledge. It may offer a chance to gain experience of working in a particular organization or sector, or to make contacts that will be valuable to career progression. Alternatively, it may serve simply as a rite of passage that everyone is expected to go through in a particular industry, regardless of how much the work involved actually resembles what the intern may ultimately be hoping or expecting to do if they find paid employment.” (Stewart et al., 2021: 335).

Internships vary in their effectiveness, observe Stewart et al. (2021: 336), but “structured, formal and, by extension, regulated internships are likely to be more successful in providing an effective bridge to long-term employment”. Furthermore “when properly conceived and monitored, educational internships, as well as internships undertaken as part of governmental active labour market programmes (ALMPs), are capable of producing better outcomes than unregulated open-market internships”. Stewart et al. (2021: 336) emphasise that “structure and formality are needed to ensure that interns acquire useful skills”.

Stewart et al. (2021: 335-6) identified “four general and to some extent overlapping concerns”:

• internships do not always deliver on the promise of useful training and skill development
• contrary to perception, internships do not necessarily create a bridge from education to paid work, especially when no remuneration is provided
• the cost of undertaking unpaid or low-paid internships is likely to be harder to bear for those from less advantaged backgrounds, especially if it is necessary to travel to an expensive location to complete them
• the availability of interns as a source of cheap labour creates an incentive for the displacement of paid entry-level jobs and the evasion of minimum wage laws

Stewart et al. (2021: 336) recommend more research to understand the scope of internships, “how they are structured, what role they play, whom they benefit, the extent to which there is any quality assurance in relation to their content, delivery or oversight, and how (if at all) compliance is ensured with any relevant regulation”.

Stewart, A.; Owens, R.; O’Higgins, N. & Hewitt, A. (2021). Developing new standards for internships. In Stewart, A., Owens, R., O'Higgins, N. & Hewitt, A. (2021). Internships, Employability and the Search for Decent Work Experience, Ch. 20, 335-348. Electronically accessible from https://www.elgaronline.com/view/edcoll/9781800885035/9781800885035.00032.xml

SETA discretionary grants for PIVOTAL programmes

Pivotal means of ‘vital or critical importance’; but is also used as an acronym meaning professional, vocational, technical, and academic learning programmes resulting in occupational qualifications on the National Qualifications Framework (NQF), more especially for scarce and critical skills.

Seta (plural -tae) in biology are a bristle-like appendages, stalks, hair or bristles, used as sensory organs (e.g. spiders), for locomotion (e.g. earthworms), or adhesion to vertical surfaces (e.g. feet of geckos); but also used as an acronym meaning Sector Education and Training Authority (SETA). List of Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs).

Discretionary grants are exactly what is states, funds allocated at sole discretion, not a given, and there are several ‘hoops to jump through to try and implement them’ say SDF Corp. Group (n.d.). The aim of discretionary grants is to encourage stakeholders to contribute towards Skills Development, focussing on scarce and critical skills producing projects within a sector or industry, such as:

• Learnerships
• Work integrated learning (WIL)
• Internships
• Bursaries
• Skills programmes

The discretion rests with the SETA accounting authority concerned, and dependent on the funds available. The relevant SETA’s discretionary grants policy, guidelines, and specific criteria apply. Extensive skills planning and skills audits are undertaken; and participating organisations or businesses are required to ensure that all skills programmes are linked to the industry’s scarce and critical skills. All Skills Development Levy payments must be up-to-date; annual workplace skills plan (WSP) including PIVOTAL and non-PIVOTAL, and previous annual training report (ATR) must be submitted on time; and application must be made by means of the prescribed SETA Discretionary Grant application form during the window of opportunity. After SETA approval, a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) will be entered, stipulating the amount of the grant given as well as the terms and conditions of such a grant.

The maxim on the South African Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) webpage reads: ‘Together, Turning Every Workplace into a Training Space”. The Skills Development branch of DHET is concerned with the implementation of both the Skills Development Act and the Skills Development Levy Act. The Skills Levy income—collected in terms of sections 7 (1) and 8 (2) (a) read with 8 (3) (b) of the Skills Development Levies Act—is distributed in accordance to the National Skills Development Strategy to respective Sectoral Education and Training Authorities (SETAs).

The Government Notice, published 3 December 2012 by the Minister of Higher Education and Training—G35940, RG9867, GoN990—contains the new regulations pertaining to mandatory grants payable to levy paying employers, versus the allocation of discretionary PIVOTAL grants. SETAs form an integral part of the framework to develop and improve the skills of the South African workforce. Each SETA produces a sector skills plan. These contribute to the national skills plan, which among others include identified scarce skills.

Each employer with an annual payroll exceeding R500 000 is obliged to contribute 1% of payroll to the skills development fund. Employers are also required to register with the relevant SETA. Each employer is required to annually submit, by a specified date, a workplace skills plan (WSP) with regard to developing the skills of its employees. Each employer is furthermore required to annually submit, by a specified date, an annual training report (ATR). If these are approved by the relevant SETA, then it must allocate the mandatory grant to such a levy paying employer.

SDF Corp. Group is Skills Development Facilitation Corporation Group

Skills Development Facilitation Corporation. (n.d.). Discretionary grants – what are they, and how do I apply? Electronically accessible from; https://sdfcorp.co.za/discretionary-grants-what-are-they-and-how-do-i-apply/

 

Developmental relationships do have an impact on internships

Internships often serve both as corporate talent acquisition strategy; and as opportunity for students to gain first-hand workplace experience, say Ali, Gardner and Edmondson (2022). Employers often use internship programmes to identify talent for full-time employment. It has been found that the support of supervisors may influence the decision of interns to pursue a job offer. Developmental relationships may impact early socialization and adaptation of interns. Internships serve as transition pathway from tertiary study, and as entryway to full-time employment.

“A mentor is uniquely distinct from a supervisor” indicate Ali, Gardner and Edmondson (2022: 338), who define a mentor as “a senior, experienced organizational member who helps more junior employees develop technical, interpersonal, and political skills”. Mentors fulfil “two functions to mentors in working with mentees, a career-related (providing sponsorship, coaching, challenging assignments, exposure, visibility and protection) and psychosocial (friendship, role modeling and counseling)”. Whereas a supervisor is generally assigned to the intern, mentoring is usually a more natural relationship, that develops spontaneously. Assigned supervisors, because sharing a workspace with the intern, is better positioned to serve as role model; there is a greater opportunity for interaction; and for performance-related guidance and development. “However, depending on the willingness of the supervisor to provide support, an intern may or may not receive the attention needed to develop”, and “may turn to other more senior organizational members who are more open to supporting them as mentors to fill this void” (Ali, Gardner and Edmondson, 2022: 338). In such a context the mentor buffers the detrimental effect of inadequate support by the supervisor.

Socialisation in the workplace is described by Ali, Gardner and Edmondson (2022: 336) as “the process by which an individual acquires knowledge, behaviors, and relationships necessary to participate and succeed in their initial assignments within the organization”. Both supervisors and peers help newcomers acquire skills and information. In Figure 1, Ali, Gardner and Edmondson (2022: 336) depict the key factors that may contribute to the socialisations of interns. They submit that the primary mechanisms underlying acceptance of a job offer are the “learning during the internship experience and the satisfaction gained from the internship”.

Ali, A.A., Gardner,P. & Edmondson, B. (2022). Developmental relationships matter: Examining the joint role of supervisor support and mentor status on intern outcomes. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 23(3), 335-346. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_23_3_335_346.pdf

Internships, valuable CV-polishing learning or exploitation?

“No universally accepted definition of an internship” exists, indicates Stewart (2021: 17-18), and citing The Economist (2014), saying it is “a spell of CV-burnishing work experience”. The terminology (internship), in use for more than a century, originated in medical education, where it denotes a postgraduate period of clinical training of doctors under supervision, but also spread across many other professions and occupational fields to provide knowledge and skills in the workplace. Internships may serve “to satisfy the requirements of education or training courses”; or offered by employment service providers to job seekers as part a labour-market programme; or by established business to offer a taste of the nature of work in a particular profession, or to test out applicants. However, job seekers may further initiate internships in order to supplement résumés, or to gain contacts. Both known as ‘open-market’ internships. Maake-Malatji (2021: 137) indicate that in “South Africa ‘low- or no-pay “creative internships” are proliferating at an astonishing rate”.

Maake-Malatji (2021: 132) indicates that the terms ‘intern’ and ‘internship’ are defined in various ways, frequently depending on the field. A person “employed at an entry-level position in an organisation in a structured programme to gain practical experience in a particular occupation or profession” is usually deemed an ‘intern’ he says, and cites Stellenbosch University’s guidelines “which describe an internship as a planned, structured and managed programme that provides work experience for an agreed period of time”. An alternative description of an internship, he says, is a “career specific work experience that one undertakes during/after one’s studies in order to gain the practical experience required to operate and make a positive contribution with respect to the career path one eventually pursues”.

Stewart, Owens, O'Higgins and Hewitt (2021: 2) cites Ross Perlin (2012), who published ‘Intern nation: how to earn nothing and learn little in the brave new economy’ and who stated “a global fact of life [is that] internships are … a significant source of cheap, flexible white-collar labor and a major steppingstone to affluence and professional success. They grant access to those who can afford them, and block further progress for those who cannot”. Maake-Malatji (2021: 141) says that in South African context are several higher education institutions, “based on their recognition within the national and international spheres, gain leverage for their graduates in the world of work”, contributing to inequality and exclusion for students from an underprivileged institutions. The struggle for resources by underprivileged institutions is prevalent, and says “for black graduates, education is a tool to do away with poverty”.

Stewart et al. (2021: 2) observe that little has changed during the past decade; that “internships have become even more firmly entrenched in the transition from education to work”; and that it “is still not attracting the attention it deserves” as forms of ‘work-based learning’ (p. 5). Stewart et al. (2021: 3) qualify what they mean by the term ‘internship’, or ‘traineeship’ as sometimes called in Europe, “to be any arrangement for the performance of work within a business or organization which is primarily intended to provide experience, skills and/or contacts that will help the worker obtain employment or other work opportunities in the future”. They caution that the definition is far from exact and that “it does not matter whether the internship is undertaken during, after or as part of a formal scheme of education, training or government assistance”. They, however, “distinguish an internship from an apprenticeship, on the basis that the latter seeks in a more structured (if not always formal) way to provide all the skills needed to practise a particular trade or profession”.

Whereas the traditional apprenticeship model “has always been premised on the idea of learning a particular trade or craft, while performing [paid] work to practise what has been learnt and to hone the skills involved”, in recent decades there “has been the steady decoupling of training from paid employment” observe Stewart et al. (2021: 3-4). Furthermore, the prevailing modern form of apprenticeship (and the contemporary ‘learnership’ in South Africa) “typically requires time release from work to attend classes at an educational institution”, “however, on-the-job instruction still remains an integral element of these schemes” explain Stewart et al. (2021: 3). Regardless of what called, “licensing or accreditation schemes often require a period of time to be spent working under the supervision of experienced practitioners” (p. 4).

Several drivers and pressures are causing the disconnecting of training from paid employment, say Stewart et al. (2021: 5). The volatility of global markets on the one hand, and pressure on enterprises to accomplish adequate returns to shareholders on the other, result in reduced long-term investment in training. ‘Grow your own timber’ in-house entry-level training programmes are far less prevalent. It is evident that the costs of training significantly shifted from business to the job seeker, the employee and the state. Often funds for training and education are limited to recovery of Skills Development Levy expenditure.

The pedagogical belief of further and higher education institutions that certain knowledge, and in particular skills, are best acquired through real-life experiences, is contributing to growth of need for internships, alternatively termed ‘work-integrated (or experiential) learning’, opportunities. There is further increasingly a demand for graduates who are ‘work ready’, say Stewart et al. (2021: 5). These two drivers towards, however, are impeded by limited paid-learning opportunities and constraints with regard to state funding made available through Sectoral Education & Training Authorities (SETAs) by means of discretionary grants.

Maake-Malatji, M.I. (2021). The law and regulation of internships in South Africa. . In Stewart, A., Owens, R., O'Higgins, N. & Hewitt, A. (2021). Internships, Employability and the Search for Decent Work Experience, Ch. 8, 130-144. Electronically accessible from https://doi.org/10.4337/9781800885042

Stewart, A. (2021). The nature and prevalence of internships. In Stewart, A., Owens, R., O'Higgins, N. & Hewitt, A. (2021). Internships, Employability and the Search for Decent Work Experience, Ch. 2, 17-33. Electronically accessible from https://doi.org/10.4337/9781800885042

Stewart, A., Owens, R., O'Higgins, N. & Hewitt, A. (2021). Internships: A policy and regulatory challenge. In Stewart, A., Owens, R., O'Higgins, N. & Hewitt, A. (2021). Internships, Employability and the Search for Decent Work Experience, Ch. 1, 2-16. Electronically accessible from https://doi.org/10.4337/9781800885042

Empowerment through virtual experience programmes — virtual internships

Mid 2022, Standard Bank South Africa announced the launch of an initiative of virtual internships, with the aim of helping “students gain practical skills and experience that mirrors the work they will do”. The Head: Youth Development, Maymoona Ismail, explains that “the Virtual Experience Programmes aim to bridge this gap between education and industry” by means of video-guided “content, case studies and assessments” (TechFinancials). The virtual internships are free, self-paced and completely online “bite-sized 5-6 hour virtual work experience programs that give students a genuine career advantage” (Forage). Upon successful completion students will receive certificates to add to their resumes.

The virtual internships is one of several dedicated youth development and employment (YDE) initiatives towards “enabling access to inclusive quality education, job creation and supporting economic development in order to reduce inequality” (Digital Street).“Access to education is critical to unlocking the full potential of today’s youth, and we want to supplement their studies with insights that will allow young people to make more informed study and career decisions that lead to job creation,” says Ismail.

Two of the Virtual Experience Programmes are already live (Africa.com), namely ‘Accessing Work Opportunities’ and ‘Getting Ready for the World of Work’ (ITWeb) including “skills such as job searching, business communication and networking, personal branding, interview preparation and more” (Hypertext). Five more programmes to follow in August 2022 include “retail and investment banking, software development, engineering, and data science”. Those interested may sign up for free at https://bit.ly/SBWorkReadiness

Getting Ready to Join the Workforce Virtual Experience Programme - Register

Accessing the World of Work Virtual Experience Programme - Register

Forage recognises that there is a gap between the worlds of education and work. Forage endeavours to empower educators free of charge, to integrate scalable project-based learning, from leading international companies, into curriculums and internship programmes. Forage already offers more than 70 programmes in a range of fields (catalogue).

Placement and non-placement work-integrated learning (NPWIL)

Through this blogpost I attempt to provide some guidance regarding the scope of placement and non-placement forms of work-integrated learning (WIL).

Work-integrated learning (WIL) is generally associated with placements, whereby students spend periods of time in the workplace. However, in recent years, many innovations–without placement time–with regard to integrating work practices into teaching and learning occurred. There has been “evidence to suggest universities were exploring and experimenting with new ways” and an uptake of non-placement WIL activities, “to include a range of simulated, virtual, authentic and industry-based activities” say Dean, Eady and Yanamandram (2020: 1-2). The global Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic escalated experiments, which were further leveraged through technological platforms, and described by some as a learning revolution. It most certainly served as impetus for questioning the dominant modes of WIL, and extending interest into alternative WIL models. Examples of non-placement WIL (NPWIL) “may include (but not limited to) authentic industry projects, simulations, field work, creative studio work, digitally enabled or virtual WIL and other NPWIL experiences”.

Whereas my employer opted about a decade ago to use experiential learning as umbrella term, differentiating WIL and simulated work experiences (SWEs), others broadened the range of WIL to include forms of non-placement. Dean, Yanamandram, Eady, Moroney, O'Donnell, and Glover-Chambers (2020) indicate that over the last decade WIL has moved away from the narrow conception of ‘work placements’ to a much broader and widening lens. An earlier typology of WIL entails three models, namely professional programmes, service learning and cooperative education; where students reside in different ‘workplaces’. Another typology delineates different types of WIL experiences, based on ‘on-site’ activities, namely systematic training (e.g., apprenticeships); the structured work experience (e.g., field experience, mandatory professional practice, co-op and internships); and institutional partnerships (e.g., applied projects, service learning). Dean, et al. (2020) indicate that boundaries with regard to WIL are often unclear because of complexities of multiple variables and understandings. They convey five innovative models that are growing, given the advancements in technology, globalisation and creativity, including micro-placements, online projects or placements, competitions such as hackathons, incubators or start-ups and consulting.

Dean, Yanamandram et al. (2020) caution against the use of WIL ‘type’ nomenclature for categorisation, because of variations in terminology, yet relatively similar definitions. They support the notion of classification based on the defining features of WIL rather than specific modes or models of WIL. Dean, Yanamandram et al. (2020) cite a typology by Kaider, Hains-Wesson and Young (2017: 158), comprising a two dimensional grid, namely authenticity vertically and proximity horizontally, depicted in my blogpost ‘Evolving work-integrated learning typologies and frameworks’.

The authenticity axis portrays the learning activity, and the assessment thereof, with regard to the extend students work on problems, processes and projects that they may encounter in the future workplace, and to what extend artefacts that students need to produce would reflect the practice. The proximity axis represents the degree of closeness of learning experiences to real workplaces or practice contexts, and the degree of direct interaction with industry practitioners or community members on work related activities. Kaider et al. (2017) overlaid their grid with exemplars of activities that could take place across three different stages of university education. However Dean, Yanamandram et al. (2020) find this problematic and present both the Universities Australia typology based on the delivery of WIL activities, and the University of Wollongong, Australia, university-wide approach of a WIL Curriculum Classification (WILCC) Framework. Informed by all these, I propose a three-dimensional-kind of typology (or framework), based on Kaider et al. (2017: 159) authenticity-proximity axes, but overlaid by my three broad categories I propose, namely: (a) foundational, (b) applied, and (c) comprehensive, depicted in the diagram below.

Kaider et al. (2017) do not include a grouping for both low-authenticity and low-proximity, because they do not regard such means of teaching and learning as WIL.

Foundational WIL as ‘category’

The four groupings serve as examples of credit-bearing WIL which require of students to observe, explore, analyse or reflect on the application of theory in practice. Activities should be purposefully designed to provide for career development learning, developing of identities, and to guide the learning and reflection of students about the discipline, concepts, skills, ethics and aptitudes. Foundational relates to groundwork or laying the basis for future practice.

Applied WIL as ‘category’

These three groupings also serve as examples of credit-bearing WIL which generally require of students, or provide students opportunities to practise, while also critically reflect while directly engaging in work practices. Applied WIL activities compliment theoretical learning and should be purposefully designed with practical purpose in mind, involving engagement with the actual phenomena.

Comprehensive WIL as ‘category’

This category includes examples of large scope or extensive coverage generally of substantial credit-bearing WIL. However, in some cases internships may involve postgraduate work under supervision with the aim of professional registration. Such WIL should be purposefully designed to provide students opportunities to practise and reflect on actual work with supervisory guidance and feedback. University staff generally provide briefing/debriefing, reflection and support sessions, monitoring and assessment. Students may further be required to participate in activities to share, reflect on and integrate their learning experiences. Comprehensive WIL displays both high levels of authenticity, and high levels of proximity to future work practice.

References

Dean, B., Eady, M.J. and Yanamandram, V. 2020. Editorial: Advancing Non-placement Work-integrated Learning Across the Degree. Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice, 17(4), Available at: https://ro.uow.edu.au/jutlp/vol17/iss4/1

Dean, B., Yanamandram, V., Eady, M.J., Moroney, T., O'Donnell, N., & Glover-Chambers, T. 2020. An institutional framework for scaffolding work-integrated learning across a degree. Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice, 17(4). Available at: https://ro.uow.edu.au/jutlp/vol17/iss4/6

Kaider, F., Hains-Wesson, R., & Young, K. 2017. Typology of authentic WIL activities and assessment, Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 18(2), 153-165. Available at: https://www.ijwil.org/files/APJCE_18_2_153_165.pdf

Evolving work-integrated learning typologies and frameworks

As with most things, work-integrated learning (WIL) has undergone growth and development. Dean, Yanamandram, Eady, Moroney, O'Donnell, and Glover-Chambers (2020: 3) indicate that over the last decade WIL has moved away from the narrow conception of ‘work placements’ to a much broader and widening lens. One typology of WIL entailed three models, namely professional programmes, service learning and cooperative education; where students reside in different ‘workplaces’. Another typology delineates different types of WIL experiences, based on ‘on-site’ activities, namely systematic training (e.g., apprenticeships); the structured work experience (e.g., field experience, mandatory professional practice, co-op and internships); and institutional partnerships (e.g., applied projects, service learning)—although all these includes an industry partner, project-based learning (PjBL) is not necessary delivered in single block placement and may run concurrently with study modules. Dean et al. (2020) indicate that boundaries with regard to WIL are often unclear because of complexities of multiple variables and understandings. They convey five innovative models that are growing, given the advancements in technology, globalisation and creativity, including micro-placements, online projects or placements, competitions such as hackathons, incubators or start-ups and consulting. These include and extend placement, suggesting that typology of WIL needs to consider both placement and non-placement types of WIL.

Dean et al. (2020: 3) cite Kaider, Hains-Wesson, and Young (2017), who examined “the degree to which assessment or activity inside a unit (subject) is proximal to the workplace or practitioners and is an authentic piece that resembles professional practice” (emphasis added). Kaider et al. (2017: 158) describe the dimensions of their authenticity-proximity framework as follow:

• Authenticity: learning activities and assessments requiring students to work on problems, processes and projects that they may encounter in their professions and produce artefacts reflecting professional practice.
• Proximity: learning experiences that occur in real workplaces and professional contexts; in online or live complex simulated workplace environments; and those that enable students to interact directly with industry practitioners or community members on work related activities.

The authenticity-proximity framework, reflected in Figure 1 (from Kaider et al., 2017: 158), comprise two axes with a nine cell grid, the vertical axis reflects three levels of authenticity of a learning task in relation to real-world practice and the horizontal axis reflects three levels of proximity to the workplace. Kaider et al. (2017: 158) emphasis that assessments that into the low-authenticity or low-proximity categories are not deemed WIL, as these assessments focus primarily on cognitively-based disciplinary knowledge, often taking the form of essays and examinations.

Kaider et al. (2017) further overlaid the authenticity-proximity framework with exemplars of activities that could take place across three stages of university education, reflected in Table 1 (from Kaider et al., 2017: 159)—prospectively offering a horizontally and vertically scaffolded approach. The three stages, or levels, are:

• Introductory WIL: offered in the first year introduces students to the world of work and the beginning of creating their own professional identity to meet their careers aspirations. The direct interaction with employers is limited at this stage though students may observe practitioners and workplaces.
• Year 2 and 3 WIL [Intermediate WIL]: afford students the opportunity to design and develop a range of artefacts that reflect practice in their professions; undertake processes characteristics of workplaces; and engage directly with industry/sector/community personnel. This may include learning in complex, simulated, workplace environments such as studios, moot courts and practice clinics in which students perform all or most of the functions that they would in a real work situation. Students may also be offered opportunities to interact directly with industry and/or community personnel in a client-consultant type relationship that is common in many professions. Additionally, direct interaction may also take the form of feedback from practitioners on student work; panels; and discussion groups, the essence of which students ideally integrate into summative assessments.
• Placements [Advanced WIL] reflect a long tradition of on-the-job learning and vary in length, time offered, paid or unpaid, intensity and orientation.

Although this typology was designed for categorizing and analysing research data, it became evident to Kaider et al. (2017) that it could also serve as a teaching resource for staff, in that it could generate assessment ideas, as provide guidance in mapping progressively developmental assessment tasks across the programme.

Dean, B., Yanamandram, V., Eady, M.J., Moroney, T., O'Donnell, N., & Glover-Chambers, T. 2020. An institutional framework for scaffolding work-integrated learning across a degree. Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice, 17(4). Available at: https://ro.uow.edu.au/jutlp/vol17/iss4/6

Kaider, F., Hains-Wesson, R., & Young, K. 2017. Typology of authentic WIL activities and assessment, Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 18(2), 153-165. Available at: https://www.ijwil.org/files/APJCE_18_2_153_165.pdf

A conceptual framework for a self-regulated internship model

Roy and Sykes (2017: 7-13) adapted the Zopiatis & Constanti’s (2012) conceptual framework, image immediately below, into a tabular-format, starting with the planning stage, and extended it for the virtual environment.

Zopiatis & Constanti’s (2012)

The Roy and Sykes (2017) conceptual framework for a self-regulated internship model, comprising four-tables, is summarised in the four quadrant table below.

1. Plan ·         Curriculum design, internship specific learning objectives, learning materials ·         Undertaking of mutual commitment signed ·         Role clarification, clear job description, mentoring/supervision, oversight/coor-dination and on-boarding ·         Host organisation policies and procedures ·         Quality assurance measures, standards and evaluation ·         Pre-internship seminar

2. Engage — The virtual Internship ·         Experience diary, activity logging, recording, reflective journaling and tracking ·         On site orientation, training, supervision ·         Assessment, by means of rubrics, of work and progress ·         Discussions and sharing through LMS ·         Feedback to guide the learning experience and intervention

4. Reflect and Reflect ·         Formal reflection, e.g. e-portfolio ·         Evaluation, rubric submission online by supervisor ·         Self-assessment by students ·         Reflective discussion ·         Building a virtual wall of wisdom ·         Stakeholder survey to improve programme

3. Assimilate ·         Interaction with the learning experience ·         Guidance to students through LMS ·         Connection of theory to practice by LMS ·         Online simulations and role-play opportunities ·         Dedicated discussion boards with guided questions ·         Collaboration, cooperation and communication ·         Review of curriculum by stakeholders

The Roy and Sykes (2017: 10) framework includes a fifth table, namely the “student’s self-regulated component of the hospitality internship learning process”, which among others entail each student’s responsibility to secure one or more opportunities with host organisation for a (paid or unpaid)4 to 6-week internship, by requesting a chance to do a project. This may entail volunteering at a professional association conference; working part-time for free; or some innovative idea. Roy and Sykes (2017) further encourage conducting Internet searches for internships; perusing industry journals; attending career fairs; and establish and maintaining relationships with career services. They urge the demonstration of undeniable work ethic, drive, motivation, initiative, and commitment by students. The self-regulated model, they submit, encourages students to negotiate, build self-confidence, utilise critical thinking and develop personal goal setting. Roy and Sykes (2017) argue that within the virtual (or distance) education environment students are already self-regulated (SRL) or self-directed (SDL). While the theoretical backgrounds of SRL and SDL may differ, it results in the student ultimately being responsible for much of the learning process. With SRL, the task is set by the lecturer, whereas with SDL tasks are initiated by the student. With self-regulated learning within the distance environment, the student would be responsible for finding an organisation at which to conduct the activities, which constitutes the self-direction.

Roy and Sykes (2017) report (p. 2) that in “recent years, the literature is increasingly more focused on online internships and their value to students in different disciplines” and cite several authors. They found that the “general consensus is that learning the ins and outs of an industry virtually, using contemporary internship methods, strengthens the students’ expertise and better prepares them for future workplace environments”. They observe that literature reflects that students gain significant benefits from real-life experience irrespective if “an internship, an externship, community project, or field experience”. It is reported that employers say that the completion of a supervised and evaluated internship, or community-based project, would ensure that college graduates possess the needed knowledge and skills. Connecting students from a virtual academic programme with employer organisations, however, is challenging, which prompted Roy and Sykes (2017) to develop “a self-regulated internship model applicable to an online hospitality curriculum”.

Roy, J. & Sykes, D. 2017. A review of internship opportunities in online learning: building a new conceptual framework for a self-regulated internship in hospitality. International Journal of E‑Learning & Distance Education, 32(1). Electronically accessible from http://www.ijede.ca/index.php/jde/article/view/1027

Zopiatis A. & Constanti, P. 2012. Managing hospitality internship practices: A conceptual framework. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education, 24(1), 44-51. Electronically accessible from https://doi.org/10.1080/10963758.2012.10696661

pro et contra of virtual sub-internships on career perceptions

The value of work-integrated learning (WIL, originally identified as cooperative education) as career choice clarifier or verifier, has been advocated for more than a century. Ooi and Ooi (2020) in this regard indicate that the “SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has left a huge impact on the career perceptions of trainees and medical students globally”. They elaborate stating that sub-internships have been serving as stepping stones to successful residency programme applications, in that international medical graduates (IMGs) were given the opportunity during final year at medical school to learn about specific residency programmes, and to assess if they are a ‘good fit’, prior to applying. The cancellation of sub-internships or clinical rotation of 4^th year medical students, meant a loss of opportunities to build meaningful relationships; to demonstrate personal level of competence; to gain mentorship; and to acquire letters of recommendation. Some hospitals fortunately organised virtual sub-internships, which entail a series of webinars presented by current residents and programme directors to at least provide insight into the nature, ethos, and values of the residency programme, the hospital, and the team members. Ooi and Ooi (2020) highlight several ‘pros and cons’ (pro et contra) pertaining virtual sub-internships.

Pros:

• Multiple virtual participation within a similar time frame to an in-person sub-internship, affording a more informed choice about which residency programme/s to pursue
• Potential networking opportunities
• No prerequisite requirements or physical constraints limiting participation
• Participation is free and access from comfort of own space

Cons:

• Value of virtual inferior to actual, with no opportunity to demonstrate abilities or work towards a recommendation
• Connection building and gaining mentoring are restrained
• Limited success rate with cold emails
• Partisan and impersonal experience

Ooi, R. & Ooi, S.Z.Y. 2020. The role of virtual sub-internships in influencing career perceptions: an international medical graduate perspective. Medical Education Online, 25:1, DOI: 10.1080/10872981.2020.1821463

Artist and repertoire professionals search for talent from a pool of potential

In ‘Creating virtual internships in the music business’, Channell and Anderson (2010: 173) indicate that “Mozart was one of the first to leave the patronage system [working as servants to powerful noblemen] to play music for the masses” and that “Beethoven was able to make a living as a musician by playing for audiences and not solely relying on the aristocracy for total financial support”. The challenges Mozart and Beethoven faced, remain challenges facing musicians, who “rely upon the general public to not only provide income, but also to provide a venue to touch the lives of others through their music”.

“Music is made accessible to the populace through the work and dedication of the people in the music industry. The music industry seeks talent and then brings that artist to the masses through recording contracts and concert tours” indicate Channell and Anderson (2010: 173). Historically, musicians “were expected to ‘pay their dues’ to get to the point where an [artist and repertoire] A&R professional [the division of a record label that is responsible for talent scouting] would consider listening to an untested, unrecorded performer. The system expected artists to go through the trials of night clubs, becoming warm-up acts for regional bands, and finally becoming regional acts themselves. Eventually, artists might be heard by an A&R professional who might sign them to a recording contract or give advice on how to improve the act. This system eradicated less popular performers, and only those with audience appeal or fortitude prevailed and were rewarded with a contract.” (Channell & Anderson, 2010: 178). However, “Sometimes, being signed by a major label requires being in the right place at the right time and knowing the right people. Many talented individuals and performing groups have not been discovered because their timing has not aligned with the schedules of A&R professionals. This does not make the performers less talented, it is merely the fact that they have not yet been in that right place, or have not networked appropriately.” (p. 177)

https://www.musicgateway.com/blog/how-to/what-is-ar-and-how-does-it-work

Aspiring musicians were often required to relocate to musical hubs, which could be cost prohibitive because internship programmes historically do not pay well. Many promising musicians are further restricted due to family or other reasons. The digital age impacted the above significantly. Channell and Anderson (2010: 178) indicate that “With the advent of digital recording, MP3 technology, and social networking, music sharing is only a click away. Many performers are now opting to build a fan base through social networking sites by allowing streaming audio of their latest releases, podcasts of interviews, blogs, and other interactive technologies to build fan support with the hopes it will translate into online sales of recordings.” Through virtual internships and the use of technology, the process of talent discovery is expedited. Aspiring musicians no longer “have to wait to be signed by a major label to be able to present his or her music to the masses.”

The Radford University ‘music business program’ and RM64, ‘a boutique artist management company’, developed a partnership with the aim of reaching out to a broader audience outside of the local area, through a real-world virtual environment. “Using virtual interns, record labels and management firms will have an increased number of trained A&R professionals out in the field searching for new talent” say Channell and Anderson (2010: 177).

Fuelled “by improving technology and the growth of social media”, says Channell and Anderson (2010: 176), virtual internships “are becoming more common”; providing “students with an opportunity to work on projects” and obtain relevant learning experience through the use of technology. They differentiate different types of internships, namely (a) “project-based internships require students to maintain a blog of their progress throughout the project term”; and (b) internships that “go beyond basic blogging to include typical business communications with the provider”, such as teleconferencing and “written reports about the internship experience”. Virtual internship programmes allow students to complete their prerequisite experiential learning by “finishing assignments and participating in hands-on activities that can be implemented from anywhere with Internet access”. The host “company will ask the intern to complete assigned tasks through a virtual environment just as it would if the student were physically in the office”. Students stay “in touch with facilitators, who assist and monitor their progress and performance, and subject mentors, who are experts in the specific field of study”.

Channell and Anderson (2010: 174) indicate that “a good internship should adhere to a set of standards”, which “should be consistent for all internships”. They present “eight principles of good practice are listed for all experiential learning activities as outlined by the National Society for Experiential Learning”, which are (p. 175):

1. Intention – Both the student and the internship provider must be clear on expected outcomes as well as set goals and objectives for projects.
2. Preparedness and Planning – There must be clear plans for the internship. Both the intern and the provider must understand the expectations, start, and end dates.
3. Authenticity – The internship must provide real world experience. Applicable skills learned for the intern’s individual growth in the field.
4. Reflection – An opportunity must exist for both the intern to reflect on what they are and have learned as well as the provider to reflect on the work attempted throughout the process.
5. Orientation and Training – The intern must be given a background of the company, expectations as well as how projects are to be completed. This may include various training activities that will help the intern learn the culture of the provider as well as the basics used in the industry.
6. Monitoring and Continuous Improvement – The intern is entitled to have consistent feedback on their progress. It is important in the learning process to have feedback to work toward improvement.
7. Assessment and Evaluation – At the end of a task, and the internship as a whole, the provider bears the responsibility of providing clear assessment of skills learned and an evaluation of the interns work.
8. Acknowledgement – It is vital for all parties to acknowledge the accomplishments that were achieved through the time period of the learning experience.

Channell, T.L., & Anderson, D.M. 2010. Creating virtual internships in the music business. Journal of the Music and Entertainment Industry Educators Association, 10(1), 173-183. Electronically accessible from https://doi.org/10.25101/10.9

How the frequency of quality communication impacts the psychological contract of e-Internships

Jeske and Axtell (2018) differentiates two types of computer-mediated internships (also known as virtual or e-internships); namely, (a) those that are entirely simulated with the aim of knowledge and skill acquisition, and (b) those that are by means of tele-working, and involving an actual employer, but characterised by working remotely. Jeske and Axtell (2018) found that e-internships offered in more than two dozen countries vary in duration; as well as the hours of ‘work’ expected, with regard to which flexibility is permitted; and is lacking the permanency and/or continuity, which is usually associated with other forms of employment. Organisations offering e-internships, Jeske and Axtell (2018) found, include for-profit companies, small and medium-sized employers, start-ups and entrepreneurs, non-profit organisations, and government agencies. Although e-internships have been in existence for more than a decade, little is known with regard to their general management challenges for supervisors, say Jeske and Axtell (2018), who decided to research the psychological contracts of e-internships. The term 'psychological contract' (illustrated below), which emerged in the early 1960s, refers to the unwritten set of expectations between the parties concerned, and may include expectations, respective beliefs, perceived obligations, informal arrangements, etc. Jeske and Axtell (2018) identified four relationship characteristic-types of psychological contracts in literature, namely transactional, relational, balanced, and transitional.

The frequency of communication, through different media, appears to improve the quality of the relationship, the task clarity and the knowledge exchange, found Jeske and Axtell (2018). This is deemed of significant importance from the perspective of both the CHE’s programme accreditation and institutional audit criteria pertaining work-based learning, namely:

• Criterion 15, including implemented learning contracts/agreements with regard to objectives and outcomes of learning; regular and effective communication and good working relations; regular and systematic monitoring of progress; and an enabling mentoring system (Council on Higher Education, 2014: 104, 2004a: 20)
• Audit criterion 7(iii) same as above (Council on Higher Education, 2004b: 11)

Council on Higher Education (2014). Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Programme Accreditation Criteria, pp. 81 – 107, Criterion 15, p. 104. In Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide. Electronically accessible from https://www.saide.org.za/documents/CHE_-_Distance_Higher_Education.pdf

Council on Higher Education (2004a). Higher Education Quality Committee. Criteria for Programme Accreditation. Electronically accessible from https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/che2020-c5efd.appspot.com/o/website%2Fyxqlkgy7gwo1.pdf?alt=media&token=c1ea5d6e-2e05-463d-9f2b-bbf92d4b402b

Council on Higher Education (2004b). Higher Education Quality Committee. Criteria for Institutional Audits. Electronically accessible from https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/che2020-c5efd.appspot.com/o/website%2Fjh3xgy9ub11.pdf?alt=media&token=aa1b8117-5414-4e70-a363-50dc924a7d42

Jeske, D. & Axtell, C. M. 2018. The nature of relationships in e-internships: A matter of the psychological contract, communication and relational investment. Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 34, 113-121. https://doi.org/10.5093/jwop2018a14

A comprehensive framework for assuring the quality of work-integrated learning

Much emphasis is placed on the notion of ‘quality’, on quality assurance measures and initiatives, and on improvement plans (or frameworks), state McRae, Pretti and Church (2019: 1-2). Quality could be described as a desired end-state, a striving for excellence.

There are a number of frameworks of quality standards deemed relevant:

• Smith’s (2012) framework for evaluation of the work-integrated learning (WIL) curriculum proposes six measures of specific domains, namely authenticity, integrated learning support, alignment, supervisor access, and induction (or preparation processes)
• The Council on Higher Education (2014) criteria for the coordination of work-based learning programmes presented by distance higher education institutions.
• The McRae, Pretti and Church (2019) triple-A star (AAA★) framework below, comprising five main sections, namely (1) the foundation, concepts, terminology and five stakeholder groups (students, host organisations/employers, the educators, academic institutions, and governments—in each of the stakeholder groups there are potentially “advocates”, which are bodies representing the interests of and/or supporting the group); (2) the participation aims of each of the stakeholders; (3) the actions by each of the stakeholders that is critical for quality; (4) the expected achievements (or outcomes, impacts, measures, and key performance indicators) for each of the stakeholders; and (5) finally a synthesis of four sections, as well as an outline of a continuous improvement process.

Figure: Triple-A star (AAA★) framework (McRae, Pretti & Church, 2019: 1)

Whereas the Council on Higher Education (2014) reiterates the 2004 accreditation criteria; Smith (2012: 250) presents a new evaluation framework which structurally and conceptually divides the WIL curriculum into six domains or constructs:

1. Authenticity
2. Alignment of teaching and learning activities with integrative learning objectives (Align-TLA)
3. Alignment of assessment with integrative learning objectives (Align-Asst)
4. Integrated Learning Support (across the two university and workplace sites) (ILS)
5. Supervisor Access (Sup. Access)
6. Induction and Preparation Processes (IPP)

The Council on Higher Education (2014) furthermore persists with the use of the term work-based learning (and the coordination thereof), whereas Smith (2012: 250) asserts that authenticity “is at the heart of all workplace-situated learning”. Smith (2012: 247) asserts that work-integrated learning (WIL) entails students spending time “in professional, work or other practice settings relevant to their degrees of study and to their occupational futures”; but points out that “WIL is not the same as work experience or work-based learning, neither of which require students to specifically learn, apply or integrate canonical disciplinary knowledge”. Both physical authenticity (providing students with real work environments) and cognitive authenticity (where students personally engage in, encounter, and participate in meaningful and relevant learning within the specified disciplinary framework) of curricula are deemed important. The authenticity is assessed with regard to what extent the environment would expose students to the real work settings and to which students can observe, interact and respond to that particular context. Projects should be meaningful and consequential. Freestone, Williams, Thompson and Trembath (2007) illustrate the application of a variant of the Course Experience Questionnaire (CEQ), namely the Work Experience Questionnaire (WEQ), as measure of the workplace learning experiences of students. The WEQ had been designed to explore the perceptions of students about their learning environment. The WEQ requires students to respond on a conventional five-point scale, ranging from strong disagreement (1), through to strong agreement/concurrence (5), with the intermediate points not labelled. The dimensions of ‘clear goals’ and ‘support for learning’ have been found to correlate highly with student learning. The WEQ questionnaire consisting of 33 items (questions), with items bundled into scales, namely:

• Clear Goals Scale (3 items)
• Support for Learning Scale (5 items)
• Generic Skills Scale (5 items)
• Menial Tasks Scale (3 items)
• Overall Satisfaction (1 item)
• Ungrouped individual questions (7 items)
• Additional Generic Skills (9 items).

Conceptually, there is a substantial difference between what is deemed quality. Whereas the Council on Higher Education (2014) focusses on various elements of coordination; Smith (2012) focusses on what constitutes good teaching and learning. He (p. 248) argues that WIL “focuses attention on the integration of discipline learning and workplace practice or application”. Smith (2012: 251) advances the “notion of the constructive alignment of learning objectives with teaching and learning activities (TLAs) and assessments”. He alludes to the fact that during WIL placements students are not at their host universities, but at workplaces, and therefore urges curriculum design deliberately integrated support services in the delivery, in order to improve the individual learning by alleviating stress. This up with the management of pedagogical aspects through induction and preparing students, both pedagogically and practically. Smith (2012: 252) recognises that such present an extra burden on academics, which is compounded by the need for maintaining contact “between the academic convenor (or appropriate others – e.g. tutors) and students in situ” (notion of supervisor access).

McRae, Pretti and Church (2019: 7) assert that “WIL is a collaborative endeavour and the perspectives of multiple stakeholders need to be incorporated to ensure the quality of WIL outcomes” and elaborate that “each of these stakeholders has a connection to quality WIL as described by the key aspects identified by P.E.A.R.”:

• P for pedagogy — the curriculum needs to be designed “to allow students and host organizations to make the most of the experience and students need to engage with the curriculum”
• E for experience — “educators need to verify that the opportunity aligns with the educational goals of the course/program, host organizations need to provide opportunities for meaningful and substantial contributions, and WIL students need to fully engage with the host organization to make the experience valuable for both themselves and the organization”
• A for assessment — “designed by the educator with input from the student and host organization”
• R for reflection — the educator must provide prompts “to facilitate reflection on the experience for the student and the host organization ensuring maximum learning gains from the experience”

McRae, Pretti and Church (2019: 4-5) cites the Canadian national association for Co-operative and Work-Integrated Learning (CEWIL) definition of work-integrated learning (WIL), namely “a model and process of curricular experiential education which formally and intentionally integrates a student’s academic studies within a workplace or practice setting. WIL experiences include an engaged partnership of at least: an academic institution, a host organization, and a student. WIL can occur at the course or program level and includes the development of learning outcomes related to employability, personal agency, and life-long learning”. They further differentiate nine different models or forms of curricular WIL that exist in many post-secondary institutional contexts, namely:

• Apprenticeship
• Co-operative Education (co-op alternating and co-op internship models)
• Internship
• Entrepreneurship
• Service Learning
• Applied Research Projects
• Mandatory Professional Practicum/Clinical Placement
• Field Placement
• Work Experience

McRae, Pretti and Church (2019: 17) conclude that a quality framework for work-integrated learning is a critical, because each stakeholder has finite resources that they can be directed towards WIL, and each need to be intentional in how to allocate available resources. Many stakeholders support the positive outcomes of WIL in higher education as well as expansion, however, the outcomes are not guaranteed. Quality must remain in focus. McRae, Pretti and Church (2019: 17) suggest that through articulating the aims; accomplishing the actions; assessing the achievements of the primary stakeholders; and by using the acquired information it is possible to set a continuous improvement process in motion through quality can be assured.

References

Council on Higher Education. 2014. Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Programme Accreditation Criteria (pp 81-107), in Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide — Criterion 15, p. 104. Electronically accessible from http://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/CHE%20-%20Distance%20Higher%20Education.pdf

Freestone, R., Williams, P., Thompson, S. & Trembath, K. 2007. A quantitative approach to assessment of work-based learning outcomes: an urban planning application. Higher Education Research & Development, 26(4), December, 347–361. Electronically accessible from https://tandfonline.com/toc/cher20/26/4?nav=tocList

McRae, N.T., Pretti, J. & Church, D. 2019. Work-Integrated Learning Quality Framework. University of Waterloo, Waterloo Centre for the Advancement of Co-operative Education (WatCACE), Electronically accessible from https://uwaterloo.ca/centre-advancement-co-operative-education/research-publications/wil-quality-framework

Smith, C. 2012. Evaluating the quality of work-integrated learning curricula: a comprehensive framework. Higher Education Research & Development, 31(2), 247–262. Electronically accessible from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07294360.2011.558072

Learning of a different kind occurs when opportunity to apply

Bringing life to learning, a report about experiential learning at Ontario universities, states in the Introduction (Council of Ontario Universities, 2014: 12 - Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p12) that when there is no exam to study for, no essay to write, a different kind of learning occurs. An experiential learning opportunity is where curiosity gets tested in the real world, where knowledge and skills that have been learned are applied to a real life project.

The report further addresses experiential learning issues pertaining to:

• When students of work-integrated learning programs land dream jobs (pp. 13-14)  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p13 &  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p14
  
• Cultivation of business leadership (pp. 15-16)  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p15 &  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p16
• Innovations in technology (p. 17)  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p17
• Hearing from students and graduates (p. 19)  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p19 &  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p20
• Students shaping communities (pp. 21-22) Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p21 &  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p22
• What students and graduates are saying (p. 23)  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p23
• Bridging of borders (p. 24)  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p24
• Students facilitating healthy living (pp. 25-26)  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p25 &  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p26
• Students enriching communities with the arts (p. 27)  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p27
• Universities adding value through experiential learning (p.29)  Download Council_Ontario_Universities_EL_Report_p29

Council of Ontario Universities. 2014. Bringing life to learning, at Ontario universities — Experiential Learning Report. Toronto: Council of Ontario Universities. Electronically accessible from: http://www.cou.on.ca/publications/reports/pdfs/march262014---experiential-learning-report?utm_content=buffer89cdc&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer

Intrigued by 2015 CSOS Internship Programme

The Community Schemes Ombud Service (CSOS) is being established. How realistic is it to pursue this objective through interns? Who will mentor such interns? What will the training programme of such interns entail?

CSOS: Internship Programme 2015

• Posted on December 8, 2014

Closing Date: 12 December 2014

Location: Sandton

Stipend: R5 000

Requirements

Applicants must be graduates in any one of the fields specified below and must be at least 18 – 35 years old. Successful interns will be expected to sign an internship agreement.

Preference will be given to candidates with a driver’s licence.

Fields:

• Human Resources
• Law
• Finance
• Administration – Data Management
• Information Technology

NOTE: Applicants must list their preferred area of interest / study on the covering letter ♦ Applicants without an indication of the preferred field will not be accepted ♦ If you apply for more than one post, please submit a separate application for each post.

How To Apply

Applications, including cover letter, CV, and certified copies of qualifications and ID must be addressed to the Chief Ombudsman, Mr. Themba Mthethwa, Community Schemes Obmud Service (CSOS) , 62 Wierda Street, Sandton 2191 or emailed to: [email protected]

Enquiries: Ms Laurie Less: Executive Manager, Corporate Services: 010 593 0533