Learning in vivo

Work-related learning (WRL), defined as learning in and at work

The period of “transition from higher education to work”, in the life of young adults, is significant in that “entrance into a new context brings its own challenges”, say Grosemans, Coertjens, and Kyndt (2020: 20). “Early-career employees are expected to develop new competences and deepen their current competences”, which “can be achieved through work-related learning” (WRL). Literature about “learning relevant to work can be conceptualized in at least two ways”, say Sambrook (2005: 102), namely “learning that occurs at the place of work and learning that is embedded in work processes”—illustrated in Figure 1 below; and therefor “the term work-related learning [WRL] encompasses all forms of learning in and at work”. Other differentiated "learning at work, for work and through work". Grosemans et al. (2020: 20) indicate that work-related learning involves both formal and informal learning activities, as well as both on and off the job learning. “Formal learning activities are those activities that are more strictly organized, often within a fixed and limited time span”, whereas “informal learning activities are typically activities that follow from” carrying out work/assigned tasks. The UK, ‘work-related learning guide’ (DCSF: 6) defines of work-related learning as a “planned activity that uses the context of work to develop knowledge, skills and understanding useful in work, including learning through the experience of work, learning about work and working practices, and learning the skills for work”.

While “work-related learning is demonstrated to be particularly important for graduates embarking on their career, as the entrance to their new job comes along with many challenges that can trigger work-related learning”, “little is known about work-related learning in the case of early-career employees”, say Grosemans et al. (2020: 20), and “the question remains as to how factors in higher education can prepare students for future work-related learning”. Three orientations are perceived as significant “antecedents of work-related learning in the transition from higher education to work”, namely learning-goal orientation, performance-approach orientation, and performance-avoidance orientation observe Grosemans et al. (2020: 20-2). It has been found that students with a high learning-goal orientation are generally focused on developing required competences and performing tasks in order to learn new things; whereas students with a high performance-approach orientation are particularly directed towards demonstrating their competences and/or comparing themselves with other; but that students with a high performance-avoidance orientation endeavour to avoid tasks of which they expect the consequences to be negative. Self-efficacy, i.e., “the ‘belief in one’s own capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments’” and “perseverance in taxing situations”, is regarded as “critical to increase preparedness for the transition to work”

Sambrook (2005: 106-7) further indicates that “a key factor supporting work-related learning is the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs)” because “the Internet (web-based) enables the delivery of computer-based training across time and distance”.

DCSF stand for United Kingdom Government, Department for Children, Schools and Families.

Grosemans, I.; Coertjens, L. & Kyndt, E. (2020). Work-related learning in the transition from higher education to work: The role of the development of self-efficacy and achievement goals. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(1), 19–42.

Sambrook, S. (2005). Factors influencing the context and process of work-related learning: synthesizing findings from two research projects. Human Resource Development International, 8(1), 101 – 119.

United Kingdom Government, Department for Children, Schools and Families. (2009). The Work-Related Learning Guide (Second Edition). https://dera.ioe.ac.uk/id/eprint/10591/7/Work-related_learning_Redacted.pdf

How work-integrated learning could possibly mitigate some anticipated challenges with respect to the future of work

“The future of work and how to best prepare for it is one of the biggest challenges currently facing governments, employers, educators, and policy makers” say Tara Stevens, Judene Pretti, Norah McRae, from the University of Waterloo. They synthesised 32 contemporary reports and produced an online document which identified six major future of work trends. The further made recommendations about how work-integrated learning could help mitigate some of the anticipated challenges with respect to the future of work.

1. ADVANCES IN TECHNOLOGY—the threats of increased technology, artificial intelligence and automation call for a talent pipeline with appropriate human and technical skill development. Work-integrated learning could contribute to bridging the gap between graduate attributes and industry requirements. Students could reverse mentor workplaces with regard to digital skills and new technologies.
2. DEVELOPING SKILL AGILITY AND TRANSFERABILITY—increasingly needs for complementary skills, agility and ‘hybrid roles’ are evident, which could be developed through work-integrated learning.
3. RESPONSIBILITY FOR ADAPTATION TO THE FUTURE OF WORK—increasingly employees experience pressures to remain abreast and continue to update their skills through lifelong learning. Work-integrated learning is believed to not only lay a foundation, but also serve as model for mid-career upskilling and/or re-skilling.
4. FOSTERING CULTURES OF DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION—needs for more culturally, racial and demographically diverse and heterogeneous employees are experienced. The reflective and reflexive nature of good work-integrated learning practice may contribute increased self-awareness, uncovering of biases, and enhance cultural awareness.
5. THE GIG ECONOMY AND PRECARIOUS WORK—with a increase in gig work, less social protection and financial stability are experienced. Stints of work-integrated learning may provide first hand experiences and awareness of the implications of precarious work and the associated realities and challenges.
6. EMPLOYEE VS. ORGANIZATIONAL VALUES—widening gaps between organisational and personal values are observed. Work-integrated learning could aid students in gaining clarity on own values, as well as an awareness of what talents organisations need. This in turn would contribute to more purposeful engagement after graduation. Organisations in turn could benefit from participating in work-integrated learning provision by more efficient job design, talent attraction and post-graduate conversion and retention.

Perusal of the full online publication is recommended.

Workplace learning is learning-work

How is experiential learning structured for life in beta? In fast-paced realities the luxury of going into design-mode, to develop something, may not be feasible because the problem may have changed whilst not looking.

Simple work is outsourced and even complicated work automated. Holding onto best practices may result in falling behind. Emerging practices for continual changes requires knowledge-sharing. Complexity is often the order of the day, requiring problems-solving and continuous learning by probing. Learning is work.

The workplace learning part of educational programmes, I believe, should therefore be focussed on identification and solving of real-problems by applying knowledge gained from theoretical study and by making use of social-media to pool the expertise of others. Structured learning should entail the identification of a real complex problem in conjunction with a workplace mentor, not mundane recording of time spent in a logbook. Structured learning need not imply predetermined exposure and collection of a portfolio of evidence in this regard.

Learning organisation and work based learning

As individuals we (need to) learn lifelong in order to continue to actualise ourselves, we engage with our environment and grow (Raelin 2000: 27).

It is what we think we know already that often prevents us from learning — Claude Bernard (Raelin 2000: 27).

Organisations, as a collective, also need to learn in order to maintain themselves and improve. Raelin (2000: 28) observes that "Some pundits sell 'organizational learning' as another recipe for competitive advantage, but in fact it is more than that", he argues and indicates that the modus Vivendi (mode of 'living') of organisations that enables it to sustain—an ethos of ever adaptability to environmental surroundings, acting on intelligence and 'learning their way out' of challenges (Raelin 2000: 28).

• Trial-and-error learning only occurs after blunders
• True organisational learning should happen naturally when succeeding and upon breakthroughs
• There should be a deliberate continuous reflection

Learning organisations generate knowledge through a free exchange of information and experimentation. Whereas the focus of knowledge management is on improving accessibility and sharing of knowledge, the focus of organisational learning is concerned with the modus Vivendi, observes Raelin (2000: 29).

Raelin, J.A. 2000. Work-based learning—the new frontier of management development. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Re-current education

Today I stumbled upon the term recurrent education, while searching for literature about academic development as form of in vivo learning. Duke (1992: xiv) explains recurrent education to mean "alternation of education with employment, leisure and other activities throughout the lifespan instead of completing all formal education before entering fully into adult life". He proceeds to indicate that educational resources often favour the young (and the richer) over the older (and poorer) and states that recurrent education "is a policy proposition to support livelong learning and site a 1973 document of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development.

The word recurrent intrigued me. According to Dictionary.com, it means "recurs; occurring or appearing again, especially repeatedly or periodically". There is something amiss—surely there is growth, one never return to where you were?

The word current, according to Dictionary.com, means "prevalent; customary; the most recent". Surely the aim of lifelong learning is to 'equip' people with the prevalent knowledge. I would therefore suggest the improvement of the term by adding a hyphen: re-current education/learning.

Duke, C. 1992. The learning university—towards a new paradigm? Buckingham: SRHE & Open University Press

Classic, modern & postmodern internship models

Download Internship models

techne, episteme, poiesis, praxis & phronesis

Charles Sides and Ann Mrvica differentiates between five (5) very important Aristotelian concepts:

• techne - what people can do; a state of capacity to make; the rational method involved in producing an object or accomplishing a goal or objective
• episteme - a fixed set of information possessed by people; a system of understanding or a body of ideas which give shape to theoretical knowledge
• poiesis - means 'to make'; it is an action that transforms; it refers to 'bringing-forth'; a threshold occasion: a moment of ecstasis when something/s becomes another
• praxis - a practice (as distinguished from theory); application of skill; conduct in a public space considered as excellence
• phronesis - the capability to consider the mode of action in order to deliver change, especially to enhance the quality of life; some believe it includes the ability to reflect upon; it is practical wisdom, knowledge of the proper ends of life, in contrast to sophia - involving wisdom concerning universal truths; science

Sides and Mrvica believes that internships - as form of learning - are pursuing techne, poiesis and praxis (pp. v & 1-2). Through internships knowledge communities are sustained. When deliberating about evaluation of internship, they add the term phronesis (pp. 95-98).

I found this differentiation extremely valuable.

Sides CH. & Mrvica A. 2007. Internships, theory and practice. New York: Baywood.

Academic staff need direct exposure to the field they are teaching for

Guess what Jones (1999), Stern & Rahn (1995) and I had in common in the late nineties.

Visit my blog post INC-CEL-FAR (what?) at http://psychsoma.co.za/learning_in_vivo/2008/08/inc-cel-far-wha.html

I based my mnemonic on the then South African technikons education paradigm espoused by the Certification Council for Technikon Education (SERTEC), a former statutory body for quality insurance of the former technikons. The mnemonic spelled the essentials: IN (Industry Needs) + CC (Continuous Consultation) + EL (Experiential Learning - as it was known then) + FA (Faculty Abreast) + R (Reciprocity) = Cooperative Education. SERTEC suggested regular and at times prolonged exposure of academic staff to the realities of the 'world of work' they are treaching for.

Jones (1999) reported that the East Mississippi Community College is sending its teachers back to 'school' by placing them in internships, because they want teachers to see what is needed in the classroom. Stern and Rahn (1995) offered some recommendations with regard to the work-based learning:

• "Most academic teachers will need some direct exposure - possibly in summer internships - to the industry in which their students are working".
• Academics need to work together with employers to develop integrated curriculums.

References:

Jones, B. 1999. Getting back into the 'real world'. Community College Week, 12(8), 22-24.

Stern, D. & Rahn, M. 1995. Preparing students for the world of work: how health career academics provide work-based learning. Educational Leadership, May 1995, 37-40.

What is a community of practice?

In 1991, Jean Lave (an anthropolgist) and Etienne Wenger (a computer scientist) introduced the idea of communities of practice.

New entrants in a workplace engage on the peripheral (edge) and gradually their roles become more central. There is often tention between newcomers and the established workers. The latter share their knowledge and experiences, shape the identity of the newcomers, but are inevitably overtaken or replaced by the new entrants.

Wenger (in Jamieson) describe communities of practice (CoP) as a common occurance, which all people belong to. Some are at work, others in the community, some have names, some do not. In some instances we are core members, other times more towards the edges. Members are bound informmay by what they do collectively - there is a shared practice, that can be defined along three dimensions:

1. what the CoP is about - its purpose as understood by the members
2. how the CoP functions - the collective engagements that binds its members into a entity
3. the capabilities of the CoP - the collective body of knowledge, repertire of resources, routines, artifacts, vocabulary, etc. that its members developed or produced

CoPs move through developmental stages that are characterised by different kinds of activities and levels of interaction.

Source:

Jamieson, A. 2004. Communities of practice and a conversation with an e-learning provider. Work-based Learning in Primary Care, 2, 148-157

Learning in working life and competence development

Post updated 6 June 2018, figures taken from Illeris, K. (2016). Workplaces and learning, 201 - 216.  In Learning, Development and Education, from learning theory to education and practice -- The selected works of Knud Illeris

The learning 'acquisition' process, says Knud Illeris, always has both a cognitive (or content)  and an emotional (or incentive) side. He identifies three dimensions at play in the learning situation:

1. The content - knowledge, understandings, skills, abilities, attitudes, etc.

2. The incentive - emotion, feelings, motivation and volition

3. Interaction, communication and cooperation

The first two are two ends of a horizontal axes and the third a vertical axes, as illustrated below:

Illeris depicts working life as learning environment with an inverted triangle, with individual learning potentials at the top (vertical axes) and the two ends of the horizontal axes:

1. Technical-organisational learning environment

2. Social-cultural learning environment

By combining these two triangles depictions Illeris produces a model for learning in working life:

 Illeris (2016) added a third illustration, namely:

Illeris, K & Associates. 2004. Learning in working life. Copenhagen: Roskilde University Press.

A diamond-quality perspective of learning in vivo

While re-arranging office I rediscovered a paper by Ken H Hall (of Escom) written in August 1993, which reading it again struck me as remarkably insightful.

The then model of cooperative education a triangular-relationship of cooperation between the academic institution/provider, the employer/host of work-integrated learning and the student studying towards a qualification with both 'taught' and experience through service in a workplace prerequisites. Ken proposes a new integrative model, comprising three dimensions Download ken_hallcooped_diamond.pdf:

1. The horizontal programme/qualification slate - with the four corners representing four types of stakeholders, namely (a) formal/non-formal educational institutions; (b) student and employee bodies, (c) the relevant state(s) - SADC? - departments; and (d) professional and employer bodies. This slate may very in thickness, depending on the depth and dimensions of the curriculum requirements.
2. A quality cone - is the foundation, it comprise the relevant quality standards and quality assurance mechanisms.
3. An achievement pyramid - qualifications should serve society by rendering competent people, capable to generate wealth and promoting social prospects.

The three dimensions together form a diamond. A diamond is seen in perspective - no part in isolation. A diamond reflects is full beauty if cut and polished to its optimum - the same applies to cooperative ventures. Fifteen years ago Ken Hall (1993) already had the vision to write about global competition and the need for well educated and trained people to ensure prosperity. He also suggests (perhaps naively or optimistically) that education and training contributes to quality of life; promotion of social harmony; ethical work practice and preparing people for responsible citizenship.

Human Resources Development and the optimisation of potential

Business is concerned with profitability and productivity. Human Resources Management (HRM) deals with the optimisation of human resources (HR) in business. Human Resources Development (HRD) involves the optimisation of every individual, in terms of her/his potential. To achieve this a number of interrelated strategies are often used. The table below attempts to illustrate how some of these strategies relate to cooperative education.

A cooperative education paradigm has much in common with sound HRD. The focus of the co-op practitioner is determined in terms of her/his context. If educational-institution based, the individual is more educational-programme focused, student orientated and serving the appropriate occupational-field. If the “co-op practitioner” (HRD official) is commerce/industry based, the focus is organisational specific, staff-development orientated and liaison with relevant provider educational institution(s). If professional/vocational-association based, the focus is on that particular profession/vocation and the maintenance of standards.

Waterfall

People learn incredibly much from their daily living because often they pursue the things they are interested in. The things fit their goals, which is an important condition for learning. It is essential to set the stage.

Because of pursuing interests (or obligations) people try out things. Some attempts succeed, others fail, which result in questions. The questions lead to introspection, pondering, asking other, consulting sources (e.g. a Google search). The question in turn readies the mind for the answer. If answers are made available without the need to match a question, the answers often go wasted.

This three-step learning waterfall is illustrated below. In natural learning, people wonder about their experiences, they draw conclusions. This process bring about indices. Future learning is either allocated to an existing category or a new category indexed.

In research the central research question or hypothesis is the crux of a study. Once the question is clarified and delimited, then the research is focused. A colleague at Unisa, Paul Prinsloo, once shared the following story (Download a_story_about_the_power_of_questions.doc) about the power of questions 

The art of accomplishing the desired outcome from in vivo learning is in formulating the correct questions students need to find answers for.

Schank, R.C. & Cleary, C. 1995. Engines for education. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Importance of mastering the "High Five"

A group of Career Development experts succinctly captured what career management is about:

1. Change is constant due to the fluidity and complexity
2. Follow your heart - your values, entrenched believes and interests drives you
3. Focus on the journey - The constant changes undermines and distracts, one therefore need to focus and enjoy the process/journey.
4. Stay learning - realise that most learning is not in formal settings, but in vivo day-to day. It is therefore important to become a self-directed learner and to develop a bank of evidence of your learning: this can be done by identifying your learning, recording/capturing it and to organise it. It is important to master reflecting, recording and action planning - especially to focus (3) on following your heart (2)
5. Be an ally - suggest a community, such as in a community of practise.

References:

Butter P, Davidson D, Day B, Gitterman A, Hackett H, Lamb T, McCormick J, Redekopp D, Robb M, Ross B, Tocher M (1995) - http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_pric/is_199500/ai_763126153/pg_1

Kenworthy-U'ren, A. 2008. Service-learning and career development learning: a synergistic coupling. In the Australian Learning & Teaching Council symposium pre-reading - http://www.usq.edu.au/resources/nagcasaltcsymposiumprereading120608.pdf

A pathway for work-, career- and future/life readiness

A Symposium held in Melbourne, 19 June 2008, aimed to share findings from research conducted in order to characterise best practice in the integration of career development learning into work integrated learning in Australian universities (visit http://www.usq.edu.au/nagcascarrickproject/symposium/default.htm for more information).

Career Development Learning is defined as an "overarching term pertaining to deliberate activities that go toward the improvement of an individual’s career. Career development can be conceived of as a professional activity performed by Career Development Practitioners and alike; it can also be conceived of as a subjective experience-in-process of developing one’s career" (p. 8 of the symposium pre-reading by Belinda McLennan, PVC Teaching and Learning Victoria University).

In the newly formed comprehensive universities, I imagine, there is often different perspectives between colleagues from the former academic university and from the former technikons in South Africa (now universities of technology) about the role of universities to prepare graduates for work readiness. I agree with a comment in the pre-reading that there is a fine balance between the needs of (a) commerce, industry, government and communities and (b) the university's role.

The pre-reading emphasise that Australian universities strengthened their commitment to blending academic learning and workplace experience, which is recognised as a unique and valuable learning environment/site. I quite like the notion of Learning in the workplace and/or Community (LiWC). It expands the potential learning sites to service learning. The pre-reading regards work-integrated learning (WIL) as an overarching/generic term to include career l;earning, engaged learning, internships, practica, clinical service, service learning, field work, cadetship, workplace projects, workplace research, sandwich years, etc. (I do not agree with the inclusion of cooperative learning, which is about learning in groups. Group learning can be used very well in reflecting about individual WIL to enhance learning.)

Three important and integrated readiness dimensions are highlighted:

• Work ready: Graduates moving seamlessly into employment ('hit the workplace running' - an ideal of the universities of technology) with employability skills, knowledge and experience; with the required graduate attributes needed by the occupational field; lifting productivity and addressing skills and labour shortages.
• Career Ready: Graduates have transferable skills and knowledge to manage their way through a changing world with intensified global competition, that is unpredictable and pluralistic; able to re-learn and re-inventing themselves (lifelong learning) as their careers proceed and develop.
• Future/life ready: Graduates have the skills and capabilities to continue to learn and contribute, as well as being adaptable as citizens of a changing world with new challenges.

I personally have a problem with an over emphasis of generic graduate attributes (critical cross-field outcomes in the South African contexts) as the be all and end all of in vivo learning. Yes, I agree that the workplace is an ideal environment to accomplish some or most of the critical cross-field outcomes. However, the occupational knowledge and skills that are best acquired through active engagement in real-life (in vivo) settings, are a very important aspect of the curriculum. The in vivo learning must be structured, properly guided, mentored and assessed to ensure graduate readiness. However, this further implies that for in vivo learning to succeed universities must have many partnerships to provide the necessary learning sites (environments) for the required learning to take place. These partners must be involved in the design, the planning and the delivery of the in vivo learning, and must be committed to the learning of students. Without such partnerships a university will struggle to offer the blended learning qualification/s.

Learning AT work, FOR work and THROUGH work

Brennan and Little (1996, p. 5) as well as Seagraves, Osborne, Neal, Dockrell, Hartshorn, & Boyd (1996, p. 15) and Reeve, Gallacher & Mayes (1998, p. 19) identified three strands of work-based learning namely “learning for work; learning at work; and learning through work”. Swallow, Hall and English (2006) also differentiates learning at work, for work and through work.

Teaching and learning in higher education is largely about learning for work, vocational or of professional formation. The sandwich courses in the United Kingdom, which include a significant element of work placement, have been a feature of higher education since the 1950s.

Learning at work, in-house training courses, or pre-defined packages, largely entails in-company training and development; such training and development may lead to modular credit accumulation towards a higher education qualification.

Learning through work is derived from doing work or performing a function, where the learning is integrated into doing the job. It might be feasible to get such learning recognised (prior learning assessment) as credits towards a formal qualification. Beaudin and Quick (1995) described prior learning assessment (RPL) as credit or certificates obtained to acknowledge a person’s learning derived from life experiences. RPL is done mainly by means of portfolio assessment or challenge examinations. Hunt (2006: 266) states that RPL is based on the “authenticity, recency, relevance and sufficiency of the learning presented in the portfolio”. Swallow, Hall and English (2006) reports that a climate of lifelong learning is nurtured through accreditation of work-based learning. Burton (2005) reminds that Edgar Fauré proposed in 1972 that lifelong learning would be central to the learning society, which would be characterised by people who would enable themselves. Fauré’s idealistic and humanistic prediction has been overrun by a utilitarian viewpoint, brought about by the needs of the global economy and an ‘accelerating treadmill’ of ‘learning for a living’, rather than ‘learning for living’ (p. 187).

Beaudin, B.P. & Quick, D. 1995. Experiential learning: theoretical underpinnings. Fort Collins, Col: Colorado State University, High Plains Intermountain Center for Agricultural Health and Safety.

Brennan, J. & Little, B. 1996. A review of work-based learning in higher education. Sheffield, UK: Department of Education and Skills, Quality Support Centre.

Burton, J. 2005. Is learning for knowing or for being? Work Based Learning in Primary Care, 3: 187-190.

Hunt, L. 2006. Authentic learning at work. In Herrington, A. & Herrington, J. 2006. Authentic learning environments in higher education. Hersey: Information Science.

Reeve, F. Gallacher, J & Mayes, T. (1998). Can New Technology Remove Barriers to Work‐Based Learning? The Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, 13:3, 18-26. Electronically accessible from DOI: 10.1080/0268051980130303

Seagraves, L., Osborne, M., Neal, P., Dockrell, R., Hartshorn, C. & Boyd, A. 1996. Learning in smaller companies, final report. Stirling: University of Stirling, Educational Policy and Development.

Swallow, V.M., Hall, M. & English, G. 2006. Making practice count. Learning Disability Practice, 9(1), February: 12-17.

In the learning society learning is lifelong

Learning on-the-job has for a long time been perceived as low-class and non-academic (Barnum, 1997). However, Malick and Stumph (1998) uphold John Dewey’s view that learning is a lifelong process rather than isolated, unrelated occurrences. According to Hodkinson and Bloomer (2002) work-based learning and lifelong learning are in the United Kingdom perceived as closely related. Morton-Cooper and Palmer (2000) indicate that lifelong learning is rhetoric devised to manage the information society. Learning is advocated as a lifelong process and part of the strategic investment in society. The related idea of a learning society assumes a willingness of society to learn.

During the mid-1980s work-based learning was described as any learning linked to the requirements people's work role (Brennan & Little, 1996). The key reasons then underlying the interest in work-based learning were fourfold:

1. increased investment in human capital due to economic restructuring and productivity changes
2. optimisation of key employee skills through process-driven strategies of training and education embedded in the production process
3. mobilisation of knowledge for continuous innovation and competitiveness; and
4. the UK’s government support for financing of continuing education by employers through work-based learning.

In the contemporary environment “where university study is increasingly expensive” (Hunt, 2006: 263) and state subsidy continually reduced “it is likely that the career success of graduates will become a defining feature of universities” (Hunt, 2006:263-4) and that the spread of work-based learning is anticipated. In 2002 the Commonwealth of Australia remarked that a combination of elements of traditional higher and of vocation education is sought after and the political will of universities to produce work-ready graduates is increasing.

Barnum, B.S. 1997. Precepting, not mentoring or teaching: vive la difference. In Flynn, J.P. (ed.). 1997. The role of the preceptor, a guide for nurse educator and clinicians. New York: Springer.

Brennan, J. & Little, B. 1996. A review of work-based learning in higher education. Sheffield, UK: Department of Education and Skills, Quality Support Centre.

Hodkinson, P. & Bloomer, M. 2002. Learning careers: conceptualizing lifelong work-based learning. In Evans, K., Hodkinson, P. & Unwin, L. (eds.) 2002. Working to learn, transforming learning in the workplace. London: Kogan Page.

Hunt, L. 2006. Authentic learning at work. In Herrington, A. & Herrington, J. 2006. Authentic learning environments in higher education. Hersey: Information Science.

Mailick, S. & Stumpf, S.A. 1998. Learning theory in the practice of management development. Westport, Connecticut: Quurum.

Morton-Cooper, A. & Palmer, A. 2000. Mentoring, preceptorship and clinical supervision: a guide to professional roles in clinical practice. 2nd edition. London: Blackwell Science.