Learning in vivo

Wellbeing of students during online work-integrated learning (eWIL)

Intentional measures and resources to enhance the wellbeing of students, to achieve success, has long been advocated by scholars, say Taylor, Milne, Tam, McGee & Stirling (2023: 261), and has been accentuated by the unprecedented circumstances of COVID-19. The restrictions brought on by the pandemic, accelerated online and remote learning, and highlighted the need for supporting student wellbeing. Briant and Crowther (2020: 619) indicate that more than a decade ago higher education institutions began recognising “the value of virtual internships as valid experiential learning opportunities to acquire professional skills and competencies”. The acronym ‘eWIL’ includes electronic, online, remote and virtual work-integrated learning, and can take many forms, such as remote internships, “virtual reality, asynchronous platforms, on-line role play, blogging, on-line forum, iPortfolios, live chat rooms, virtual simulations, and video conferencing”. The required experience is undertaken remote from a physical workplace, while all communications and engagement occurring electronically.

Online learning is here to stay, say Taylor et al (2023: 261), which is justifying the need for “strategies to support student wellbeing in these contexts”. Student wellbeing during eWIL (online or remote WIL) is deemed especially important in that “students are navigating unfamiliar workplaces online, are exposed to new challenges, and are distanced from supports present in traditional in-person settings” argue Taylor et al (2023: 262). The distancing physically “from support networks and social groups can have a significant impact on a student’s sense of belonging and social connectedness” they remark.

Researchers reported that where students concurrently engage in WIL opportunities during academic study periods, such students have been known to prioritize their WIL tasks over course assignments or personal needs, and heavily taxed their already scarce resources, thus compromising their sense of wellbeing. The increased vulnerability has been known “to negative[ly] affect, sadness, stress and mental health disorders, with anxiety and depression being the most prevalent” indicate Taylor et al (2023: 262). Students furthermore “reported high rates of substance use, poor sleep quality, and emotion dysregulation”, that may “result in significant impairments to mental, social, and emotional functioning, which may reciprocally affect their capacity to be fully invested in their academic learning, and successfully integrate and master their skills in a WIL environment”. These issues highlight the need for enhanced student support.

Taylor et al (2023: 262-3) employed ‘Five Ways to Wellbeing’ as research design, namely:

1. The first way to wellbeing, connect, identifies the importance of creating strong social connections with others achieved through meaningful interactions.
2. Secondly, be active, highlights the influence of physical health and exercise on mental health, including the reduction of anxiety and depression through physical activity.
3. Thirdly, take notice, urges individuals to be present in the moment and focus on positive aspects of a situation to assist with individual reflection and deeper appreciation of experiences.
4. Fourthly, learn, promotes ongoing learning, while identifying its benefits, such as reducing feelings of isolation, and developing social relationships.
5. Lastly, give, promotes volunteering and assisting individuals other than yourself to create feelings of fulfillment and connectedness to one’s community.

Briant, S. & Crowther, P. (2020). Reimagining internships through online experiences: Multi-disciplinary engagement for creative industries students. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 21(5), 617-628. https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_21_5_617_628.pdf

Taylor, A., Milne, A., Tam, A., McGee, S. & Stirling, A. (2023). Program coordinators' support for student wellbeing in online work-integrated learning (eWIL). International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 24(2), 261-275. https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_24_2_261_275.pdf

Tools and procedures for assessment of work-integrated learning

Work-integrated learning (WIL) entails learning that is happening “in [ideally] a real working environment producing real objects and delivering services” say Hondonga, Chinengundu and Maphosa (2022: 566). “WIL is recognized as an effective strategy to promote the quality and relevance of vocational education and training” they say. The original article from which the content of this blogpost is extracted from, is framed against the backdrop of the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic that swept the world and Botswana, resulting in country-wide lockdown on 30 March 2020, affecting the continuity of WIL activities. Although most theoretical teaching, and even assessments, were adapted to online delivery as result of the pandemic, however “practical competencies related to WIL must be carried out in the workplace and assessed on the job” say Hondonga et al. (2022: 565). They remark that the pandemic imposed a significant impact for students of lower income, due to their limited access to digital technologies.

Hondonga et al. (2022: 568) indicate that the “tools and methods used for WIL assessment can be defined by what is to be assessed, whether application of content learnt, the process of learning or both”. They present (in Table 1 from p. 569) a range of different methods that can be used to assess achievement in WIL. They (p. 570) say the “completion has a number of assessment requirements”, which must all “be in place for a student to complete WIL” namely:

• logbook (15%)
• assessment by industry supervisors (60%)
• an attachment presentation (10%)
• an attachment report (15%)

They observe that “the inclusion of workplace supervisors, college supervisors and learner self-assessments gives responsibility to all parties in the learning agenda”. “This entails either giving the role of assessing work-based learners to experts based in the workplaces, or to use online assessment methods” they point out and add that “involving industry experts as assessors can help to ensure the credibility of the certification”.

Institutions had to commit “additional human and financial resources … to create new assessment strategies, deploy new technologies and/or expand the use of online and offline WIL” found Hondonga et al. (2022: 574). Figure 1 (from p. 575) reflects “the development and expansion of resources to meet online assessment demands, the most common tools or resources that were developed include video conferencing n=9 (33.3%), discussion forums n=4 (14.8%), videos n=5 (18.5%) and Youtube n=6 (22.2%)”. However, some “tools or resources for offline distance learning were also being developed and expanded”, however to a lesser extent. These “includes new written resources such as self-paced learning guides and learner notes”.

Hondonga, J. Chinengundu, T. & Maphosa, P.K. (2022). Changes in the assessment of work-integrated learning in Botswana for vocational education and training students as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 23(4), 565-578. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_23_4_565_578.pdf.

About iReflect, a mobile app for reflection in work-integrated learning

Reflective practice is of significance regarding learning and assessment of tertiary programmes that includes work-integrated learning (WIL) in the curriculum. Making sense of, learning from experiences, transformative, and deep learning of students are supported by reflective practice. However, the distribution of students in remote areas that lack internet access, present challenges to support and scaffold reflective practice. This prompted the identification of the combination of the need for a mobile app, integrated with an e-portfolio platform, and an institutional learning management system. “A key aim was to develop an app that could be used by students to practice and document reflection for learning, both on and off-line …” say Harvey, Walkerden, Semple, McLachlan, and Lloyd (2019: 57).

An ‘App’ is an abbreviated form of the word ‘application’, clarifies Techtarget (2011). It is a software program that is designed to perform a specific or narrow function directly for the user or, in some cases, for another application programme. Simply put, an app is software that enables specific tasks. Apps play significant part of the technology-driven world we live in, say Indeed (2021). An ‘App’ is a type of software that, in most cases, is installed to run on a smartphone, tablet, computer, or other electronic devices. It is most frequently referred to a mobile application.

Harvey et al. (2019: 56) indicate that “learning through WIL is a complex concept and experience” and that “a myriad of diverse influencing factors need” to be considered about reflection. Whatever reflection tool was to be devised, it needed to align and fit with varied contexts. They conceptualise reflection as the “deliberate and conscientious process that employs a person’s cognitive, emotional and somatic capacities to mindfully contemplate on past, present or future (intended or planned) actions in order to learn, better understand and potentially improve future actions” (p. 57).

Smartphone ownership is prevalent amongst young adults in developed economies, which offer opportunities for, and makes demands on WIL educators. Given that mobile devices are used extensively for messaging, blogging, note taking, and casual photography, it seems an obvious means to support and scaffold reflective practice say Harvey et al. (2019: 58). The primary design choice with regard mobile learning is the use of a web browser or apps. Vodovatova (n.d.) differentiates between a mobile app and a mobile website, saying that “the mobile website is accessed by the user via the Internet (therefore requires being online) and the downloadable application is a separate app installed on the phone and can be accessed both online as well as offline”. She defines:

• A mobile website is a website for the design of which has been scaled and optimized for mobile devices. Typically, it features smaller fonts, fewer page elements, and less white space (compared to traditional desktop versions.)
• The mobile app is a separate program stored locally on your phone that uses the device’s hardware and software features and usually creates a better, more intuitive, and faster user experience.

Harvey et al. (2019: 58) indicate that because apps appear “to be most successful for processes or tasks which are completed regularly”, and because apps could cater for remote offline usage, apps appear to be a good choice to support and scaffold reflection.

Table 4 (Harvey et al., 2019: 65-66) below, portrays user stories derived from research, to serve as a platform to design software that matches learning needs. Each row represents a use of a reflective practitioner to maximise learning, which informed the development of the prototype iReflect app.

Harvey, M., Walkerden, G., Semple, A., McLachlan, K. & Lloyd, K. (2019). What we can learn from the iReflect project: Developing a mobile app for reflection in work-integrated learning. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 20(1), 55-69. Accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_20_1_55_69.pdf

Indeed Editorial Team. (2021). What Is an App? Types of Apps and Examples. Published 4 February 2020, and Updated 23 July 2021. Accessible from https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/what-is-an-app

Techtarget Contributor. (2011). Definition of ‘app’. Techtarget Network. Accessible from https://www.techtarget.com/searchmobilecomputing/definition/app

Vodovatova, E. (n.d.) Mobile app vs mobile website: What to choose? Editor, The App Solutions. Accessible from https://theappsolutions.com/blog/development/app-vs-website/

Meaning of the notion ‘virtual learning environment’ (VLE) and some concerns

What is meant by the notion ‘virtual learning environment’ (VLE)? Flavin and Bhandari (2021: 165) state VLEs, “otherwise known as learning management systems [LMSs], are established technologies that have been supporting learning and teaching in higher education for over 20 years”. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, distance learning has increasingly become the norm, making it timely to reflect on the VLE they say. Flavin and Bhandari (2021: 164) analysed and coded 99 peer reviewed academic journal articles, identified and classified the research method and focus of each, as well as the specific brand of VLE. They found most output “to be quantitative, to focus on students and on the micro level of learning and teaching, to not have a clear theoretical focus, to not specify which brand of VLE is used, and to be produced in affluent countries”. In the late-1990s VLE systems began to spread and swiftly became a status symbol of innovation, enabling anytime, anywhere access. VLEs held the potential to transform teaching and learning, enabling both synchronous and asynchronous collaboration, regardless of spatial and temporal boundaries. However, because of the initial limited use in practice to mainly store content, metaphors for VLEs included ‘security blanket’, ‘crutch’, and ‘electronic filing cabinet’.

VLEs, such as ClassFronter (a Norwegian system), WebCT and Blackboard (which merged, trading in the latter name), Moodle (head office is in Australia) “are customarily produced in affluent countries [and] exported worldwide”. Technologies are expensive and use of digital technology in higher education, a multi-billion dollar business. The adoption of “commercial marketplace norms”, may not only “undermine core functions and values of education”, but the “design features of VLEs [also] prompt culturally specific forms of learning”, say Flavin and Bhandari (2021: 166). The influence of western countries and universities abroad—a group of universities in the United States, for example, developed Sakai—further dominate curricula and methodologies and hold the danger that VLEs may politically and technically “reproducing geopolitical structures and imbalances of wealth and power”, say Flavin and Bhandari (2021: 167). They therefore (p. 176) caution about ‘digital colonialism’ and ‘colonial pedagogy’ through dominance by affluent countries.

Flavin and Bhandari (2021: 174) mention the scarcity of theoretical lenses used in articles analysed, and mention that very few articles declared any explicit. The image below reflect four, of which the most popular theoretical lens the ‘Technology Adoption Model’, which is not an educational lens, but “not surprising, as this model analyses how people engage with technologies and the criteria they apply to evaluate technologies’ usefulness” (p. 175). Another theoretical lens is the ‘Community of Practice Theory’, which “is suitable for analysing VLEs from a social perspective and monitoring learners’ progress in learning communities, as the theory focuses on how learning communities evolve and on how people establish effective identities in communities of practice”. A third theoretical lens is ‘Activity Theory’, “is more suitable for analysing technical and social aspects of technologies and how they interact, by anatomizing systems into interactive nodes”. The fourth mentioned is ‘Grounded Theory’, which pertains to analysis of data collected.

Flavin, M. & Bhandari, A. (2021). What We Talk About When We Talk About Virtual Learning Environments. International Review of Research in Open & Distance Learning, 22 (4), 164-193. DOI: https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v23i1.5806

Doing, problem-solving, interacting, experimenting, and reflecting are significant elements of studio-based learning

The essential elements of studio-based learning entail learning by doing; interacting in a creative and reflective process with other students, lecturers, and external stakeholders; and re-doing with the aim of resolving real-world problems, in an effort to positively contribute to local communities, say Brown, Karle and Kelly (2015: 260-1). Studio-based learning evolved from the socio-cultural constructivism thread of constructivist learning theory. The intent of studio-based learning is to foster learning behaviours towards “discovery, integration, application and sharing of knowledge” (Brown, et al. 2015: 262). The practice of peer reviews, called ‘desk critiques’, facilitates development of problem solving abilities with regard to identification, iterative generation, exploration, assessment, comparison, and selection of best-fit solutions.

The use of studio-based pedagogy is relatively rare at universities, in that it involves smallish student to lecturer ratios, and permanent working spaces. Large registration groups are perceived prohibitive to enacting studio-based pedagogies. However, blended learning practices supported by collaborative technologies may provide the framework for scaling studio-based pedagogy to the pressures for increased provision, say (Brown, et al. 2015: 263). The gold standard key characteristics of studio-based learning, namely small groups, direct interaction, dedicated space, and learning through action, must be retained. The nature of studio-based learning were scaled and accomplished by dividing the students registered into sections and teams in order to enable direct interaction. Google Hangouts, a G+ community, Google Drive, Google Docs, and Blackboard Learn were used to manage the course.

Shraiky and Lamb (2013) report that an exploration of teaching strategies for inter-professional education (IPE) in healthcare, found that studio-based learning (SBL) embodies many features that are integral to effective IPE. Medical and nursing schools are pursuing IPE to facilitate students from two or more professions learn about, from and with each other. It is believed that IPE would transform the way to resolve complex problems through an integrative and more comprehensive approach. Studio-based learning offers a variety of ways to work together and resolve problems.

The studio-based learning notion originated from the École des Beaux-Arts, in Paris (source of image below), in 1648 (Murray, 2016), from the apprentice model, philosophically grounded in the notion that an art ‘master’ would pass artistic abilities and technical skills on. Students were assigned a design problem, which they would work through a rigorous learning-by-doing process. Their final product, known as ‘sketch problem’ was presented to and evaluated by the master.

Studio-based learning since abandoned the master-apprentice model in favour of student-directed frameworks, which emphasize creative problem-solving and experimentation. The lecturer or facilitator would pose either a hypothetical (grounded in likely scenarios) or actual problem as starting point. Students there after undertake in-depth data collection and review relevant literature. Students are encouraged to gather first-hand data through observation and interviews; team-work and sharing of responsibilities emphasised. Active and ongoing feedback is provided through charettes, crits, and pin-ups (Shraiky & Lamb, 2013: 462):

• Charettes are highly interactive workshops that bring stakeholders together to generate ideas to improve the solution. Students may design exercises for participants to try out or react to their proposed solutions, Charettes are fast-paced and dynamic and allow students to hear directly from their key customers.
• Crits (short for critiques) are informal feedback sessions held during each studio meeting. Instructors rotate among the student teams, engage with students about their progress, and offer suggestions, Crits are deeply embedded in the studio culture and provide a casual and non-threatening way for instructors to guide students, offer positive feedback, and catch problems early. External experts and consultants are readily integrated into the crit format and often rotate with instructors
• Crits are integrated with ‘pin-ups’ in which students display their documents and illustrations around the studio. Faculty and students rotate among the pin-ups while each team formally presents drafts of their design solutions.

Formal reviews further take place, which may serve as midterm and formal examinations. Student teams present their completed designs, in a public forum, to a preselected review panel of experts and academics, who identify strengths and areas for improvement. Feedback is typically direct and fast-paced.

There are several shared features in common between studio-based learning and inter-professional education, such as resolving realistic and complex problems. In both, process and product are important. Both are highly interactive and involves extensive exchange of ideas among students and faculty. Both combines problem-based and practice-based learning, and both observation and simulation learning are naturally evolving components

Brown, S.E., Karle, S.T. & Kelly, B. (2015). An evaluation of applying blended practices to employ studio-based learning in a large-enrollment design thinking course. Contemporary Educational Technology, 6(4), 260-280. Available at: https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/6154

Murray, C. (2016). A brief history of the École Des Beaux-Arts, First, there was the Academy. In Culture Trip. Electronically accessed from https://theculturetrip.com/europe/france/paris/articles/a-brief-history-of-the-ecole-des-beaux-arts/

Shraiky, J.R. & Lamb, G. (2013). Studio-based learning in interprofessional education. Journal of Interprofessional Care, 27(6), 461-468. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3109/13561820.2013.816273

How the frequency of quality communication impacts the psychological contract of e-Internships

Jeske and Axtell (2018) differentiates two types of computer-mediated internships (also known as virtual or e-internships); namely, (a) those that are entirely simulated with the aim of knowledge and skill acquisition, and (b) those that are by means of tele-working, and involving an actual employer, but characterised by working remotely. Jeske and Axtell (2018) found that e-internships offered in more than two dozen countries vary in duration; as well as the hours of ‘work’ expected, with regard to which flexibility is permitted; and is lacking the permanency and/or continuity, which is usually associated with other forms of employment. Organisations offering e-internships, Jeske and Axtell (2018) found, include for-profit companies, small and medium-sized employers, start-ups and entrepreneurs, non-profit organisations, and government agencies. Although e-internships have been in existence for more than a decade, little is known with regard to their general management challenges for supervisors, say Jeske and Axtell (2018), who decided to research the psychological contracts of e-internships. The term 'psychological contract' (illustrated below), which emerged in the early 1960s, refers to the unwritten set of expectations between the parties concerned, and may include expectations, respective beliefs, perceived obligations, informal arrangements, etc. Jeske and Axtell (2018) identified four relationship characteristic-types of psychological contracts in literature, namely transactional, relational, balanced, and transitional.

The frequency of communication, through different media, appears to improve the quality of the relationship, the task clarity and the knowledge exchange, found Jeske and Axtell (2018). This is deemed of significant importance from the perspective of both the CHE’s programme accreditation and institutional audit criteria pertaining work-based learning, namely:

• Criterion 15, including implemented learning contracts/agreements with regard to objectives and outcomes of learning; regular and effective communication and good working relations; regular and systematic monitoring of progress; and an enabling mentoring system (Council on Higher Education, 2014: 104, 2004a: 20)
• Audit criterion 7(iii) same as above (Council on Higher Education, 2004b: 11)

Council on Higher Education (2014). Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Programme Accreditation Criteria, pp. 81 – 107, Criterion 15, p. 104. In Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide. Electronically accessible from https://www.saide.org.za/documents/CHE_-_Distance_Higher_Education.pdf

Council on Higher Education (2004a). Higher Education Quality Committee. Criteria for Programme Accreditation. Electronically accessible from https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/che2020-c5efd.appspot.com/o/website%2Fyxqlkgy7gwo1.pdf?alt=media&token=c1ea5d6e-2e05-463d-9f2b-bbf92d4b402b

Council on Higher Education (2004b). Higher Education Quality Committee. Criteria for Institutional Audits. Electronically accessible from https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/che2020-c5efd.appspot.com/o/website%2Fjh3xgy9ub11.pdf?alt=media&token=aa1b8117-5414-4e70-a363-50dc924a7d42

Jeske, D. & Axtell, C. M. 2018. The nature of relationships in e-internships: A matter of the psychological contract, communication and relational investment. Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 34, 113-121. https://doi.org/10.5093/jwop2018a14

Key component of experiential education is reflection, not activity

Snow, Wardley, Carter and Maher (2019: 80) state that the term experiential education “is often misunderstood or misapplied through reductionist thinking to any learning that involves activity”; on the contrary, it is defined as “a pedagogical approach that encourages collective and personal critical reflection and development”. They engaged in seeking to answer questions about the feasibility of designing online experiential learning opportunities and how this can contribute to deepening professional practice in Nursing, Education, Business and Community Studies. They remark that “The key component of experiential education documented in the literature is action on the part of the student that promotes learning through reflection” (emphasis added). However, experience itself is not necessarily educative, especially when reflection is omitted. Experiential learning comprises, as per Kolb’s cycle of four stages, namely: concrete experience (CE), reflective observation (RO), abstract conceptualization (AC), and active experimentation (AE). Snow, Wardley, Carter and Maher (2019) report that collaborative activities through online synchronous and asynchronous technologies have been found to support the development of competence. They share lived experiences about four undergraduate-level professional programmes that involve experiential learning to varying degrees.

The first scenario pertains to a part-time blended learning programme from Registered Practical Nurse (RPN) to a Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BScN) degree. The RPN to BScN programme comprises theory courses delivered online and clinical (experiential) courses occurring in clinical practice settings. Each clinical module includes an online course site, which houses resources and “serves as an environment where students are required to reflect and think critically on their learning with their clinical instructor and other students”. The reflection principally through writing, with tools such as discussion boards, blogs, and course-specific email. This “blend of clinical learning with carefully designed online writing activities is a powerful combination”. Case studies and problem-based learning activities in the theory modules further serve as a form of experiential learning. The clinical or experiential, on the other hand are “enhanced through online activities and assignments that require critical thinking through reflection”.

The table below summarises the other three scenarios:

Scenario	Reflective Observation	Abstract Conceptualization	Active Experimentation	Concrete Experience
2.    Typical blended learning cycle, teacher education, science	The first lesson of each unit face-to-face, in which the previous experience deconstructed and explored and a new cycle established.	Asynchronous online activities were used to engage with theory related to learning objectives.	Each lesson design was unique to the student and specific community context.	Students did online video presenta-tions of their lessons & received feedback from their classmates.
3.    Typical learning cycle, occupational health & safety	Interactive learning based on content of module	Research paper	Discussion posts, blog entries & case studies	Community-based marketing outreach message
	Simulations and videos posted by professor with questions to address in blogs	Conceptualizing workforce-relevant knowledge related to the group topic	Reflecting, applying knowledge, and evaluating peers	Content presented online; three-tiered monitoring and measurement systems (peers, professor, and community members)
4.    Typical learning cycle, work place-ment courses	Discussion posts and a final reflective essay for each course	Developing a career plan (COMS 2101); information interview (COMS 3101)	Discussion posts, journal summaries, & self/supervisor evaluations	Placements with a community partner (100 hours for COMS 2101, 100 hours for COMS 3101)

It is the experience of the authors that “the practical realities of experiential education in higher education are challenging, and faculty interested in developing experiential learning opportunities for students must negotiate institutional policies, external regulatory bodies, and, at times, even concerns about legitimacy within their departments”.

Snow, K., Wardley, L., Carter, L. & Maher, P. 2019. Lived Experiences of Online and Experiential Learning Programs in Four Undergraduate Professional Programs. Collected Essays on Learning & Teaching: Pedagogical Innovation: Adapting Practice to Evolving Cultures, Section II, Vol. 12, p79-93. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22329/celt.v12i0.5388

Be realistic about the feasible scope of online experiential learning

Tony Bates, who has been advocating online experiential learning (and defending the feasibility thereof), in July 2020, while emergency remote learning is prominently utilised, recommends assessment of the limitations, and the implications of failure. Bates admits that during the Covid-19 pandemic it became evident that online learning (on its own) is at times not appropriate. He highlights a number of limitations, such as inequity with regard to access and affordability. Bates states that “Even if students have Internet or wifi access, they need at least 10 Mbps for any form of video, but at 2 Mbps they can handle most text (without heavy graphics) and audio”. He recommends learning design for “the lowest bandwidth of Internet to which most students will have access” and caution that at 2Mbps or less the streaming of videos, graphic rich Powerpoint slides, and making use of Zoom are not feasible. Fastmetrics^TM provides the measured average internet speed per country. Note the legend from bright red, representing 0.5Mbps, through to lime, representing 26.7Mbps. If the majority of students are within the 2Mbps-10 Mbps range then a learning management system (LMS) could be used if restricted to text, audio (e.g. podcasts) and simple graphics. Bates caution further to consider the costs of data for students to be online and says “if it comes to a choice between studying and eating, you are not going to win”. He recommends blended learning initiatives such as the reading of down loadable (or mailed) text, using short videos (maximum of 5-10 minutes), and the breaking of “the learning into small chunks”.

Bates encourages that media usage is carefully considered with regard to “who are your students and what access to technology do they already have?” and reminds that there had been very successful distance education prior to Internet. Radio, the forgotten media, could be used to support text, as could television broadcasts. Mobile learning through apps on mobile phones could be considered, and social media enables students and lecturers to stay connected. Bates wisely states “it is better to reach 90% of students with a slightly less than perfect medium than to reach 50% with a more powerful medium”, and that it is “more likely to meet most students with a combination of media”.

Much as Bates recognises the gut-feel of experienced lecturers, he cautions about resistance based on “fear of having to do something different” and urge that identification of exceptions to what can taught online should be “based on pedagogical effectiveness”. Bates says that “at least some of the activities previously only done in person” “such as lab and studio work, video, simulations, virtual reality, and even remotely operated labs can” indeed be done online or through digital learning enabling the reduction of “time in labs or studios, if not altogether eliminate the need for in-person presence”. He adds that “There is also a growing number of freely accessible open educational resources that can replicate lab and studio work, such as the OER Commons [https://www.oercommons.org/] and the MIT Teaching + Learning Lab [https://tll.mit.edu/]”. Bates admits that “there are still huge gaps in appropriate OER in visual arts, media, science, engineering, technical and vocational subjects, and where OER are available they are often difficult to use (for instance requiring specialised software to run) or of poor teaching quality. To date, most OER are available only in the English language, and much is at the post-secondary level.”

5 July 2009 https://www.tonybates.ca/2009/07/05/can-you-teach-real-engineering-at-a-distance/

1 December 2014 https://www.tonybates.ca/2014/12/01/can-you-do-experiential-learning-online-assessing-design-models-for-experiential-learning/

20 April 2020 https://www.tonybates.ca/2020/04/20/emergency-online-learning-and-inequity-developed-countries/

21 April 2020 https://www.tonybates.ca/2020/04/21/2-emergency-online-learning-and-inequity-developing-countries/

4 July 2020 https://www.tonybates.ca/2020/07/04/what-have-we-learned-from-covid-19-about-the-limitations-of-online-learning/

Virtual experiential learning is feasible

If swimming schools can further mastery through virtual swimming school, instead of letting learners slide back; and if township children can continue with violin lessons amid lockdown using WhatsApp; then surely higher and further education can achieve work-integrated learning virtually.

The COVID-19 pandemic may have grounded flights and put the world into lockdown, and the legendary African safari might be on hold; but inventive conservationists introduced virtual safaris in living rooms through cameras mounted to vehicles. Paid-for private tours by means of Zoom video calls will soon start. A zoo introduced drive-through animal viewing affording families the opportunity to ‘visit’ a zoo while in isolation.

Lockdown abruptly halted traditional workplace-based experiential learning. Solutions are explored for especially students that would have graduated at the end of 2020. As the economy is gradually reignited traditional workplace-based experiential learning might still be hampered. Institutions are recommended to virtually engage the relevant communities of practice and professional or vocational bodies, in order to seek opportunities to virtually ‘exhibit’ relevant graduate attributes, problems experienced and critical cross-field outcomes [CCFOs] that need to be attained. Filming need not be professionally done. Students can virtually engage with the virtual exemplars and through structured online learning gain their prerequisite ‘experience’.

If numerous virtual concerts work, if drive-though strip shows are supported, why would virtual experiential learning not be feasible?

What can electronic experiential learning appropriate from the COVID-19 pandemic?

When governments locked down countries, initiatives blossomed. Athletes, for example, started running virtual marathons in their gardens. On Easter Sunday evening Andrea Bocelli made history by presenting the 'Music for Hope' concert from an empty Milan cathedral, peaking at 2.8 million concurrent viewers. The biggest ever classical live stream in YouTube’s history. There were more than 28 million viewings from across the globe took place in the first 24 hours thereafter.

MyBroadband reported a significant increase in South Africa’s Internet usage since the start of the COVID-19 lockdown, peaking over 1.1Tbps on the evening of 25 March during President Cyril Ramaphosa’s announcement of the lockdown. Traffic across NAPAfrica’s exchange points reached a record 1.04Tbps the day after. Vodacom, one of South Africa's mobile phone network operators reported a jump of 40-percent since a nationwide lockdown. Afrihost recorded a 44% increase in data usage, compared to usage in January and February, with video streaming the biggest contributor. Vox recorded a 50% increase in fibre-to-the-home traffic. Elsewhere, for example in Kenya, Safaricom noted a 70% jump in data usage during COVID-19 lockdown.

Many believe that experiential learning cannot be done online. Bates (2014) contested this, saying “experiential learning is [indeed] like most design models: it is independent of the mode of delivery. What matters is how well it is done.” He advocates that there is indeed a range of teaching design models enabling the embedding of real world contexts into learning, namely problem-based learning, case-based learning, project-based learning, inquiry-based learning, cooperative (work- or community-based) education, and apprenticeships. Beard, Wilson and McCarter (2007) coined the expression E²-learning with regard to the fusion between experiential-electronic learning (EE-Learning) and e-learning.

While bored and livestreaming, at 01h00, Justin LaBoy, a former professional basketball player and a social media personality, got the idea to recreate a virtual club atmosphere on Instagram for his more than 60,000 followers. He and Justin Dior Combs, an entrepreneur, started the ‘Respectfully Justin Show’. As result of lockdown, bars and strip clubs may not operate, and around much of the world many were forced to close nearly overnight. Thousands of bartenders, bottle service girls and dancers have been left with no income. Many organisations resorted to recreating a digital experience to support members. Magic City, a strip club in Atlanta, started offering ‘virtual lap dances’. Tory Lanez, a rapper, began hosting dance nights, called ‘Quarantine Radio’ for his 7.5 million followers. LaBoy says that exotic dancers immediately requested to be guests on his livestream and his followers loved it. He felt he cannot let them dance for free, and pinned a dancer’s Cash App to the top of the feeds, so that followers could send them money. One dancer, Sasha, who has been featured on the pop-up show said “If it wasn’t for Justin … I don’t know what I would have done or how I would have paid my bills or gotten food in my house”.

Most, if not all, production or work processes, operations, and executions could be filmed and streamed. Students need not necessary be physically present to experience what they need exposure to. If a strip dance or lap dance can be done virtually, why not simulated experiential learning? It need not be costly filming.

https://www.classicfm.com/artists/andrea-bocelli/concert-empty-milan-duomo-cathedral-world-record/

https://www.enca.com/business/vodacom-sees-40-jump-data-usage-people-stay-home

https://www.cnbcafrica.com/news/2020/04/14/kenyas-safaricom-sees-70-jump-in-data-usage-during-covid-19-lockdown/

https://mybroadband.co.za/news/fibre/346757-the-76tb-man-south-africas-biggest-bandwidth-hog-during-the-lockdown.html

https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/10/style/justin-laboy-instagram-strip-clubs-live.html?algo=bandit-story_desk_filter&fellback=false&imp_id=701449925&imp_id=455391584&action=click&module=editorContent&pgtype=Article&region=CompanionColumn&contentCollection=Trending

https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-8210749/Virtual-strip-clubs-popping-Instagram-dancers-raking-18-000.html

Bates, T. (2014). Can you do experiential learning online? Assessing design models for experiential learning. Electronically accessible from https://www.tonybates.ca/2014/12/01/can-you-do-experiential-learning-online-assessing-design-models-for-experiential-learning/

Beard, C.; Wilson, J.P. & McCarter, R. (2007). Towards a Theory of e-Learning: Experiential e-Learning. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, 6(2), 3-15. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/95b4/bf51ed82edf9bb529574d65df250fb595df7.pdf

Online programmes which include work-integrated learning could pose serious pedagogical challenges

An increasing need for the flexibility of fully online study while earning, in order to enhance career trajectories, is prevalent. However, “implementing online learning can pose serious pedagogical challenges particularly when programs contain work-integrated learning (WIL) components”, if not perceived as ‘can’t be done’, say Quinn, Cioffi, Hill, Kor, Longford, Moller and Rathore (2019: 1). Contrary to online learning frequently being perceived as a passive and second class; the practical outcomes are accomplishable.

A wide-dispersion of online students renders it impractical to include a shared physical learning site. Quinn et al. (2019) report, for example, on the creation of an interactive virtual learning environment, in collaboration with construction companies, through significant state funding, portraying the construction of an eight-storey building. This high quality resource is supplemented by “comparatively low-cost environments demonstrating the construction of a residential, industrial, and multi-storey building construction sites”, including “embedded images, explanatory videos and documents which students can interact with” (Quinn et al. 2019). Virtual site visits, “comparable to traditional site visits”, are embedded in online learning materials in order to “motivate students to reflect on and refine their understandings based on the authentic context they are experiencing”.

Quinn et al. (2019) report the benefits construction management, for example, students reap from repeat visits to the same site, namely appreciating “the spatial constraints (e.g. how construction products are related to one another in a particular building site) and temporal constraints (e.g. the dependencies for coordinating subcontractors)” as well as “how these constraints change over the life of the building project”. However, difficulties in aligning the timing of visits to construction sites could result in students developing a piecemeal understanding of the construction worksite. Virtual field trips include, for example, augmented realities; simulations; and learning environments making use of 360-degree images of the construction of a building over time; contribute to a four- dimensional virtual work-integrated learning environment.

Quinn, D.; Cioffi, E.; Hill, S.; Kor, M.; Longford, A.; Moller, R.; & Rathore, P. (2019). Implementing work-integrated learning in online construction management courses. Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice, 16(1). Available at: https://ro.uow.edu.au/jutlp/vol16/iss1/9

Electronic (or online) experiential learning (E2L) requires a paradigm shift

Electronic (or online) experiential learning (E²L) requires a paradigm shift. Hole and Larsen (2007, p. 4) suggest that when learning moves from ‘apprentice style learning-in-practice’ to a virtual learning environment, the learning must be ‘re-contextualized in a pedagogical frame’. They state that the challenge academics face “is to provide examples that help the learners to develop professional knowledge and different assignments can be a bridge between the 'reality in practice' and” theory. Students furthermore should work with tasks that provide useful learning situations, stimulating extended knowledge building and 'scaffolding' within the filed concerned.

A student-centred virtual learning environment is quite different from traditional cooperative work-integrated education. Both students and academia should cooperate and exchange information about their experiences in the field. The focus is on sharing knowledge and exchanging information from the different settings. The virtual learning environment is deemed a tool for innovation in higher education, stemming from the demands from a modern society. Hole and Larsen (2007, p. 2) outlines several factors that resulted in the demand for extensive use of Open and Distance Learning (ODL) in meeting the educational demands. 

Hole and Larsen (2007, p. 4) remark about the delivery of learning materials through a learning management system (LMS) by making “use of ‘triggers and teasers’ to enhance the learning arena”, “how to integrate a common curriculum-plan, reading-list, assessments and workload”. They add that basically the idea is “that the students should work with tasks that provided good leaning situations, stimulated knowledge-building and scaffolding within the field” concerned. Participants dependent on each-other, guided by the course aim, helping each-other with regard to assignments. Knowledge is not readily accessible from textbooks. Learning is seen as participating, rather than acquisition, and the role of academics 'guide-on-the side', instead of 'sage-on-stage'. 

Hole and Larsen (2007, p. 5) caution about the novelty concerning ICT literacy and e-learning resources. They recommend tutorials, as well as tailoring first assignments to familiarise participants with the LMS tools. 

Hole, G.O. & Larsen, A.K. (2007). VIRCLASS: the Virtual Classroom for Social Work in Europe - a toolkit for innovation? European Journal of Open, Distance and E-Learning, 10(1), 19 April 2007. Electronically accessible from http://www.eurodl.org/materials/contrib/2007/Hole_Larsen.pdf

Experiential learning in a distance e-learning context

Knud Illeris (2016: 201), inducted in 2006 to the ‘International Adult and Continuing Education Hall of Fame’ (2018) in the fields of continuing education and adult learning, remarks that ‘workplace learning’ and work-based learning’ taking place directly in the workplace “became popular slogans in the context of vocationally orientated education”. He indicates the paradoxical nature of this popularity in the light of historical trend that the bulk of curriculums were transferred from workplaces to formalised education. Illeris (2016: 202) points out “this has been absolutely clear: more and more schooling and less and less educational training at the workplaces”. Enterprises furthermore want education to be financed by the state. Illeris instead emphasise the need for lifelong learning during work life, with the view of continuously ‘upgrading’ the base qualifications of employees.

Many aspects evolved since the beginning of the twentieth century, when cooperative education systems and sandwich education programmes were introduced in Northern America and Europe respectively, and subsequently spread internationally. Among the many changes, there had been an explosion of e-learning, say Arthur and Raine (2016), who indicates two main reasons. First is technological advances associated with the Internet that resulted in substantial affordable educational resources, networked learning, new ways in which knowledge is imparted, etc. The second reason is the importance of knowledge for economic growth. “At a time of budget constraints …” say Arthur and Raine (2016: 144) “… efficiency drives and a continuous emphasis on optimising value-for-money, the contemporary and emerging technologies offer unique opportunities for the education sector.” The emphasis on e-learning and diminishing opportunities for workplace learning as part of the curriculum, prompt the pursuance of simulations and educational alternatives to real-life experience, in order for graduates to gain competence.

Dadze-Arthur and Raine (2016: 146) explain that “e-learning, also referred to as distance learning or online education, can be understood as learning that involves students doing all their classroom activities outside the traditional classroom, at a distance from their school or college, and supported by technology-based tools”. Unisa (2018) states that the university “is the largest open distance learning institution in Africa and the longest standing dedicated distance education university in the world”. It therefor makes sense that Unisa would favour simulations and other electronic facilitated experiential learning to actual placements of students.

Beard, Wilson and McCarter (2007: 4) remark that a limited number of underpinning theories exist with regard to e-learning, which is often “technology-led rather than theory-led”. They coined the expression E²-learning with regard to the fusion between experiential learning and e-learning. According to Baasanjav (2013: 576) the term “refers to the possibility of bringing together everyday experience and communication technologies”. Dadze-Arthur and Raine (2016: 146) simply uses experiential-electronic learning (EE-Learning), qualified as the notion of ‘experiential learning in a distance-learning environment’, which is generally to be understood as a combination of experiential learning and e-learning with the goal to create a strong, interactive learning community.

Bates (2014) responded to a colleague stating that experiential learning cannot be done online that “experiential learning is [indeed] like most design models: it is independent of the mode of delivery. What matters is how well it is done.” Bates points out that there is a range of teaching design models that embed real world contexts into learning, namely problem-based learning, case-based learning, project-based learning, inquiry-based learning, cooperative (work- or community-based) learning, and apprenticeships.

David Kolb’s cyclical theory (1984) is deemed synonymous with experiential learning. He synthesised three earlier models of learning through direct experience, namely the models of Dewey (1938), Lewin (1946) and Piaget (1972). Kolb argues that concrete real-life experiences (CE) provide a reference point for learning. Specific meanings and emotional stimuli in turn serve as material to consider and examine from a variety of perspectives, which entail reflective observation (RO). This in turn result in the looking for patterns, building concepts, testing of theories, and drawing logical conclusions about future implications, a process of abstract conceptualization (AC). People complete the cycle by drawing upon previous insights to solve problems and make decisions, the stage of active experimentation (AE). Kolb (1984) asserts that for learning to be effective in acquiring knowledge or skill, people need to engage fully in four successive stages. Dunlap, Dobrovolny and Young (2008) emphasise that Kolb’s cycle presents itself as scaffold in the design of E²-learning. As result of the transactional distance involved in e-learning, students easily experience real-world projects as frustrating, ineffective, and demoralizing. Kolb's model is therefore promoted as design-mould to provide structure and sequence for students.

In 2011, the South African Council on Higher Education (CHE) published ‘Work-Integrated Learning: Good Practice Guide’ (CHE, 2011), which differentiates several work-integrated learning (WIL) curricular modalities, as alternatives to actual workplace (WPL) or work-based learning (WBL) namely:

• Work-directed theoretical learning (WDTL), which entails theoretical forms of knowledge are introduced and sequenced in ways that meet both academic criteria and are applicable and relevant to the career-specific components
• Problem-based learning (PBL), a pedagogic approach that involves students learning through the structured exploration of a practice-based or research problem
• Project-based learning (PJBL), which brings together intellectual inquiry, real world problems and student engagement in relevant and meaningful work

34 (p. 17) of the South African ‘Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework’ (HEQSF, 2014) states that “In the HEQSF, WIL may take various forms including simulated learning [SWE], work-directed theoretical learning [WBTL], problem-based learning [PBL], project-based learning [PJBL] and workplace-based learning [WPL]”. §34 further states that “The selection of appropriate forms of work-integrated learning depends on the nature and purpose of the qualification type programme objectives and outcomes, the NQF level at which the WIL component is pegged, institutional capacity to provide WIL opportunities, and the structures and systems that are in place within professional settings and sites of practice to support student learning.” (acronyms added).

 

References:

Baasanjav, U. (2013). Incorporating the experiential learning cycle into online classes. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 9(4), 575—589.

Bates, T. (2014). Can you do experiential learning online? Assessing design models for experiential learning Accessible from https://www.tonybates.ca/2014/12/01/can-you-do-experiential-learning-online-assessing-design-models-for-experiential-learning/

Beard, C.; Wilson, J.P. & McCarter, R. (2007). Towards a Theory of e-Learning: Experiential e-Learning. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, 6(2), 3-15. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/95b4/bf51ed82edf9bb529574d65df250fb595df7.pdf

Council on Higher Education (2011). Work-Integrated Learning: Good Practice Guide. HE Monitor No. 12, August 2011. Pretoria: IeCommunications. Electronically accessible from http://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/Higher_Education_Monitor_12.pdf

Dadze-Arthur, A. & Raine, J.W. (2016). Experiential Learning and Teaching at a Distance: How Distinctive an Experience? In Developing Public Managers for a Changing World. Published online: 19 Dec 2016; 141-159. Permanent link to this document: https://doi.org/10.1108/S2045-794420160000005008

Dunlap, J; Dobrovolny, J; and Young, D (2008) Preparing e-Learning Designers Using Kolb's Model of Experiential Learning, Innovate: Journal of Online Education: Vol. 4: Iss. 4, Article 3. Available at: http://nsuworks.nova.edu/innovate/vol4/iss4/3

Illeris, K. (2016). Working and learning, chapter 18, 201-216. In Learning, Development and Education, from learning theory to education and practice—the selected works of Knud Illeris. New York: Routledge.

International Adult and Continuing Education Hall of Fame. (2018). About the Hall of Fame (https://www.halloffame.outreach.ou.edu/about.html), 2006 Hall of Fame Inductees (https://www.halloffame.outreach.ou.edu/by_year/HOF_2006.html), and Knud Illeris (https://www.halloffame.outreach.ou.edu/2006/illeris.html).

South African Government (2014). Department of Higher Education and Training, Government Notice No 819. Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework. Government Gazette No. 38116, 17 October 2014. Electronically accessible from http://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/38116_gon819.pdf and/or http://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/CHE%20-%20Higher%20Education%20Qualification%20Framework%20-%20EDITED%20171013.pdf

At which stage of workplace learning?

Jane Hart created a diagram in May 2010, subsequently refined as seen below by Jay Cross. Read Jane Hart's observations at ow.ly/2WEX7w

eService to enable experiential learning for online programmes

Constructing experiential learning for online or distance learning qualifications, presents specific challenges. Interactions, both among students and with teaching staff, are further considered essential to the online or distance learning environment. Preparing students academically is not sufficient; higher education institutions are accountable to society to prepare students for the complex issues they will as graduates encounter in the workplace. Experiential learning serves a vehicle with regard to the latter.

Higher education institutions have embraced service-learning as “a form of experiential education in which students engage in activities that address human and community needs and have structured opportunities to participate in activities designed to promote their learning and development” (Strait & Sauer, 2004: 62). Service-learning fosters critical thinking and interpersonal skills in that students provide community service as part of the curriculum of their qualification/s; learn about the community context and reflect about it; and gain an understanding of the connection between academic studies and the service rendered.

Conventional service-learning of residential higher education institution is generally in proximity to the institution where students are studying and access therefore relatively easy. With online or distance learning students are scattered and based in their own communities, which may be diverse. The challenge is to facilitate quality service-learning experience of multiple students in multiple communities. This type of distributed service-learning Strait and Sauer (2004: 62) call eService.

The published article shares the eService model and scope of attempts. A Language and a science application are portrayed. The authors share what the learned and challenges. They conclude with suggestions and future plans.

Strait, J. & Sauer, T. 2004. Constructing experiential learning for online courses: the birth of e-service. Educause Quarterly, 1(1), January 2004, 62-65. Retrieved from Internet 28 March 2013 from: http://www.educause.edu/ero/article/constructing-experiential-learning-online-courses-birth-e-service

Workplace-based mobile-enabled learning is gaining importance

“Work-based mobile learning is increasingly becoming one of the most important means of providing knowledge, skills and competencies to the workforce” reports Auer, Edwards and Zutin (2011: 219). They point out that whereas traditionally on-the-job training had been prevalent, increased access to Internet and enhanced wireless communication resulted in individuals training themselves in any location of their choice.

The rudimentary model of the master-crafts-person teaching one of more apprentices worked well for many centuries. Fast-paced progress; reduced learning time and more complexity with regard to knowledge, skills and competency; resulted in a need for more rapid learning and continuous adaptation to changes.

Auer, Edwards and Zutin (2011: 229) caution those designing and implementing work-based mobile learning to consider adult learning theories such as:

• The experiential learning theory of Charles Rogers (1969) focussing on significant learning only when people actually do things. Cognitive learning according to Bloom’s Taxonomy (1956) often represents knowledge of encyclopaedia nature; which become irrelevant if not complemented by affective and psychomotor dimensions. Laird’s (1985) sensory stimulation theory advocates that increased incorporation of the senses in instruction consolidates learning. Sight and sound enhances learning; as does kinaesthetic/tactile or learning-by-doing that involves actual manipulation of objects. Action learning and action research stems from these foundations.
• Adult learners bring past experiences—both positive and negative—into the new learning situation; which suggests that the learning contexts must be non-threatening. Whereas young learners can be coerced by grades; adults adapt to cope with life’s changing demands. Often work-based learning opportunities are pursued in order to take advantage of developmental, advancement or promotional opportunities. Learning therefore takes place because of its relevance to immediate needs.
• Stephen Krashen’s Affective Filter Hypothesis (Krashen, 1987) postulates that when a person is threatened or the what is learned conflicts to the person’s existing views; then the learning would not be as fruitful as when the learning reduces perceived threats or complements existing thinking.
• Malcolm Knowles promoted andragogy as adult learning theory in the 1970ties and gained a substantial following; but not without resistance. Zemke (1984) emphasise four important aspects of andragogy, namely: (a) adults learn best if they perceive immediate value; (b) when included in the organisation more learning takes place and learners are more satisfied; (c) actually doing things (kinaesthetic learning) consolidates theory by pooling the senses; (d) and previous experiences are used to relate current learning to.
• The Characteristics of Adults as Learners (CAL) model of Patricia Cross (1981) takes into consideration both personal (such as physical—eye sight, hearing, reaction time; stage of life; experiences; cognitive development—degree of independence, decision-making, vocabulary and reasoning abilities; as well as psychological, social and cultural variables) and situational characteristics (for example, voluntary versus obligatory learning; full or part-time engagement; etc.).

Four aspects to take into consideration when designing mobile work-based learning (p. 233):

1. Explain why specific matters (for example commands, functions, and operations) are being taught.
2. Make instructions task-orientated and contextualise learning activities within performance requirements.
3. Keep in mind the potential wide variety of learner backgrounds and make provision in instructions for various levels and types of previous experience.
4. Make use of the self-directedness of adults and enable learners to discover things for themselves; but provide guidance and corrective assistance where necessary.

Auer, M.E.; Edwards, A & Zutin, D.G. 2011. Online laboratories in interactive mobile learning environments, pp. 119-248. In N Pachler, C Pimmer & J Seipold (Eds). 2011. Work-based Mobile Learning — concepts and cases. Oxford: Peter Lang.

E-portfolios and assessment via mobile technologies

The South African Council for Higher Education (CHE) imperatives with regard to programme (qualification) accreditation include, among others:

• That the programme must bring about an understanding within students about the specifics of the occupation for which they are being trained.
• That the students should master the techniques and skills required for a specific profession or occupation.
• And where feasible that work-based learning and placement in a work-based environment should form an integral part of the curriculum.

The CHE imperatives with regard to work-integrated learning further include (1) a mentoring system that enables the student to recognise her/his strengths and weaknesses in his/her work, to develop existing and new abilities, and to gain knowledge of work practices; as well as (2) regular and systematic monitoring. Mobile devices may well enable both these.

However, Coulby, Laxton, Boomer and Davies (2011) caution that without a sound pedagogical rationale for the use of mobile devices; technical and infrastructural realities may very possibly reduce student engagement.

Higher educational health and social care curricula often comprise a blend of classroom instruction (in residential education); simulations and work-based placement/s. The latter provide for learning opportunities and the assessment of competencies and professional attributes that cannot be cannot be replicated in the former two. The authentic nature of work-based placement/s enables holistic preparation; preparing graduates for professional practice, including the culture and practices of the particular community of practice. Primary care community clinics are utilised for placements in teaching. (Coulby, et al citing Billet, 2001; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Vygotsky, 1978).

Although work-based placements are regarded essential; Coulby, et al realise that these learning and teaching environments are challenged by practical and sometimes complex issues such as:

• Unreliable or restricted access to PCs and IT infrastructure; resulting in a lack of access to contemporary information; learning materials and social networks.
• Students experiencing uncertainty due to inadequate feedback on their performance resulting in unpreparedness; as well as insufficient monitoring, mentoring and tutoring (pastoral care) due to inadequate resources.

A potential solution explored is the ‘Assessment and Learning in Practical Settings’ (ALPS) programme, which employed mobile technologies. Common competencies, representing ‘readiness’ for professional practice were identified and developed into mobile assessment tools—which enable and encourage students to seek a spectrum of assessment opportunities such as from peers in the health and social care professions; from service users (patients); and self-reflection. The ‘ALPS’ assessments are completed are automatically captured online in e-portfolios; which in turn enable tutor and student review and commentary—in this way future practice of students are shaped and high-level scaffolding feasible. The University of Leeds, for example, has several hundred students in six different discipline/qualification cohorts.

Coulby, C; Laxton, J; Boomer, S & Davies, N. 2011. Mobile technology and assessment: A case study from the ALPS (Assessment and Learning in Practical Settings) programme, pp. 51-70. In N Pachler, C Pimmer & J Seipold (Eds). 2011. Work-based Mobile Learning — concepts and cases. Oxford: Peter Lang.

Distance education through sophisticated online format may be a global trend

Like many other, the library profession has evolved from an apprenticeship or vocational training to a fully fledged academic discipline coupled with practical training. The library practicum is field-based, supervised, and a professional learning experience taking place within a library—exposing students to a variety of tasks and learning experiences of a range of library operations. Since the beginning of the present century the mode of library and information science education has undergone change.

While distance education is perhaps the most suitable and effective medium for library and information science education in developed countries; it is not necessary the case in developing countries. In countries like Pakistan, the electronic infrastructure situation is not yet adequate for shifting to online teaching. Of particular importance to note is that although two distance library and information science programmes exists in Pakistan students who are remotely located without appropriate information and communication technology (ICT) facilities cannot much use of these programmes. Traditional modes of delivery are therefore prevailing. Furthermore, because libraries in the developing countries tend also to be traditional, content such as classification, cataloguing, traditional reference service, and library management still dominate the curriculum.

Malik, A. & Ameen, K. 2010. Effectiveness of library practicum: perceptions of LIS graduates in Pakistan. Library Review, 59(8), 573-584. Accessed online from Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

Experiential training in distance education for socially vulnerable persons

Combating poverty and social exclusion calls for more flexible forms of training and skills development of vulnerable groups such as lone parents. The European Community defines lone parent families as those in which under aged children grow up with one parent. The absence of the other parent could be due to for example death, divorce, neglect, or casual absence.

When devising effective education or training programs for lone parents the barriers confronting these individuals must be considered and measures developed to overcome them. Primary barriers are low self-esteem; diminished personal quest due to unpleasant circumstances; lacking information and desire to enrol for training; limited accessibility due to family commitments; inadequate training methods, techniques and principles appropriate to their circumstances; and vague relevance of programme content to their needs, interests and characteristics. International adult education literature the personal experiences of adults must inform the design of learning opportunities and that continuing adult education more efficient when a hybrid or blended education approach is offered. In addition to class room teaching/training the following methods are encouraged: distance education; experiential learning; learning by doing; self-learning; collaborative learning; and adaptive learning.

Emphasis on the notion that people are not mere receivers of new knowledge and experiences, disharmony is used as a driving force for learning. Past lived experiences and current perspectives of social reality is contrasted with what potentially could be. Out of this interpretation of disjuncture learning can be derived. Experiential learning principles and student-centered techniques, such as brainstorming, role-playing, simulations, group exercises and case studies provide socially vulnerable persons to draw from previous experiences and knowledge, and to share these with members of the rest of the group in order to find solutions to problems.

Distance education, through Internet and personal computer, enable lone parents to engage in educational programmes. Technology allows chatting with one or more participants, through text, sound and even video. Web casted scenarios in the form of case studies or role plays enable participants to develop capabilities through analysis and reflection.

Papadakis, S; Fragoulis, L & Phillips, N. 2008. Supporting lone parents: experiential training techniques in distance education. Development and Learning in Organizations, 22 (5), 9-11. Electronically accessed from Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1477-7282.

Work based learners increasingly supported online

Online learning environments are increasingly being used to provide learning materials and tutor support, says Tony Toole, Director of the E-college.ac Ltd, Swansea, UK. Work-based learners may submit evidence portfolios online for the assessment of their skills development. Furthermore, employers and training advisors or academics working in partnership and liaise with each other online. Internet has significantly improved the efficiency of work-based learning support and offers significant cost savings for both employers and institutions. This is especially of value to small to medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) because they can more flexibly engage in work-based learning and can fit learning around work commitments with the added advantage of not involving time and travelling costs.

Web 2.0 technologies is utilised to build online learning environments with functionality similar to established commercial learning management systems, but far less costly. Cloud computing resources further enables reduced costs compared to hosting services online. Various social media, for example, YouTube, Blogs and Wikis further enables the sharing of resources. The Open Educational Resources (OER) movement resulted in fast volumes of educational materials being freely available online. Increasingly educationally relevant online work-based learning materials are being sourced from non-educational sources. The increase in personally owned mobile and wireless technologies further contributes to a win-win situation for all stakeholders in education. Blended and distance learning options are therefore becoming the preferred choice of learning.

Toole, T. 2011. Social media: key tools for the future of work-based learning. Development and Learning in Organizations, 25 (5), 31-34. Accessed online from Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1477-7282.