Learning in vivo

WIL at post-graduate level facilitate greater relevance of higher education in the workplace

“Within the South African higher education context, the most significant effort to align doctoral education with the world of work has been the introduction of Work Integrated Learning (WIL)” observe Treptow (2013: 83), who derived insights from employers through interviews. This blogpost builds on ‘work integrated research higher degree (WIRHD) studies’. Further to the integrative framework of the WIHRD context in which both Chen et al (2008: 133), as well as Stewart and Chen (2009: 162), illustrate the unique components; Bernhard and Olsson (2023: 517), in a manuscript aptly titled ‘one foot in academia and one in work-life’, illustrate with the bold arrow in the figure 1 below the required mutual relationships.

Bernhard and Olsson (2023: 517) assert that “the industrial PhD student should not alone be responsible of bridging academia and work–life”, but that “the interactions between these academia and industry need to be strengthened throughout the entire PhD education”. They remark that “both academia and industry must have detailed insights into industrial PhD education to recognize and fully exploit these learning benefits while building, sustaining and resilient collaboration over time promoting a future workforce of researchers with skills, practices and learning capabilities applicable in contemporary society”. In another manuscript the same two authors present (figure 2 below) a ‘WIL-based framework of industrial PhD education collaboration’ (Olsson & Bernhard, 2023: 532).

Olsson and Bernhard (2023: 526) report about “explorative qualitative research on industrial PhD student collaboration was conducted over a three year period (2019-2022)”. Their findings reflect the integrated perspectives “industrial PhD students (IPS), academia (A), and practice (P)” with WIL applied as theoretical lens to identify both benefits and challenges (p. 528). Table 2 (p. 529) illustrate the mutual benefits with selected quotes and categorised “in sub-themes: (i) access to practice – inclusion in networks, projects, and empirical data; (ii) understanding of practice – contextual understanding, inclusion, and tacit knowledge; and (iii) integration of theory and practice – multiple perspectives and knowledge creation” (p. 528).

Despite the benefits above, there are also challenges and tensions indicate Olsson and Bernhard (2023: 529-530). The identified challenges, illustrated by selected quotes in Table 3, “are categorized in the following sub-themes: (i) understanding and expectations of the collaboration; (ii) formal agreements for collaboration – administrative bureaucracy, financing, and conflicts of interest; (iii) inclusion and access; and (iv) integration of research in practice – societal impact”.

 

The significance of collaboration, mutual understanding, agreements, inclusion and integration are noteworthy. These are key success factors towards industry PhDs.

Bernhard, I. & Olsson, A.K. (2023). One foot in academia and one in work-life – the case of Swedish industrial PhD students. Journal of Workplace Learning, 35(6). 506-523. https://doi.org/10.1108/JWL-11-2022-0157

Olsson, A.K. & Bernhard, I. (2023). Transforming doctoral education: Exploring industrial PhD collaboration in Sweden. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 24(4), 523-536. https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_24_4_523_536.pdf

Treptow, R. (2013). The South African PhD: Insights from employer interviews. Perspectives in Education, 31(2), 83-91,142.

 

Work integrated research higher degree (WIRHD) studies

“Doctoral education is transforming” say Ohlson and Bernhard (2023: 523). The “traditional doctoral training and research mode is facing some challenges in meeting the industry needs in this fasting changing economy” indicate Chen et al (2008: 129). They point out that “there is greater pressure for research to be linked to applied usage, be aligned with private-sector or government objectives and to have shared intellectual property arrangements”. Treptow (2013: 83) reiterates this saying “current international trends reveal that doctoral education is increasingly expected to satisfy workplace demands”. There is furthermore an “expanding job market for PhD holders entering entirely new fields” say Chen et al (2008: 129), and “pressure on doctoral training to be more flexible and aimed at a wider array of jobs than the traditional academic profession”. Project doctoral programmes furthermore evolved, having “greater emphasis on research conducted and directed within the workplace” and both professional and project doctoral candidates tend to “research topics that are closely associated with the context of their workplace” that “bring together the academy and the workplace with an emphasis on professional practice” (p. 130). Because of these reasons the Work Integrated Research Higher Degree (WIRHD) has emerged “and is intended to be a significant piece of original research which makes a new contribution to science and the discipline”. Chen et al (2008: 133), as well as Stewart and Chen (2009: 162), present a graphical illustration (Figure 1 below) of the integrative framework comprising the unique components of the WIHRD contexts.

The solid-line circle represents the powerful supervisor-student relationship which should enjoy prominence; however the research involves both the academic and industry contexts, therefore the second dotted-line circle, portraying the industry supervisor. WIRHD “is nested within three-tiers of department/discipline, University/Organisation and social/supra-societal contexts”. The establishment of a project-based partnership arrangement between the university and the industry is deemed necessary to enhance communication and co-operation. Furthermore, a structured approach to enable the student and the supervisors to specify the objectives; to outline the duties and roles of both students and supervisors; and to set “the principles and structures for performance monitoring, information exchange and dispute resolution”. Ohlson and Bernhard (2023: 523) studied “the perspectives of industrial PhD students, academia, and industry … with work-integrated learning as a theoretical lens to identify benefits, challenges, and prerequisites for how to structure and manage such a collaboration”.

In the South African context, section 34 of the Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework (HEQSF, 2014: 17) states that “Some qualifications will be designed to integrate theory and practice through the incorporation of work-integrated learning (WIL) into the curriculum … and may be incorporated into programmes at all levels of the HEQSF” (emphasis added). The higher education qualification descriptor (p. 38) for a Master's Degree (Professional, NQF Exit Level 9) states that “in some cases, a professional Master's degree may be designed in consultation with a professional body or fulfil all or part of the requirements for professional registration or recognition, and may include appropriate forms of work-integrated learning” (emphasis added). The descriptor for a Doctoral Degree (p. 40) states that “the designator of Philosophy is typically used for general doctoral degrees by thesis. However, other designators may be used to denote the area of study or the name of the discipline” and for Professional Doctoral degrees (p. 41) the qualification type may be followed by a designator that indicates the area of study or name of the discipline, for example, Doctor of Business Administration (DBA); Doctor of Commerce (DCom); Doctor of Education (DEd); Doctor of Engineering (DEng); Doctor of Law (LLD); Doctor of Nursing (DNursing); Doctor of Pharmacy (DPharm); Doctor of Psychology (DPsych); and Doctor of Social Work (DSW). Furthermore, that the PhD title should not be used; however, the qualification may include appropriate forms of work-integrated learning; the research component should comprise at least 60%; demonstrate a high level of research capability; and the application of theoretical knowledge to highly complex problems.

“Traditional doctoral research training is structured around a master and apprentice transmission model, relying predominantly on primary supervisors for candidate research training” say O'Connor (2023: 567) and indicate that “in this model, professional development of candidates typically centers on discipline-specific knowledge and research techniques”. “A new landscape for various models for doctoral education is emerging” say Ohlson and Bernhard (2023: 523) and add that “university-industry collaboration is a widespread phenomenon for education and innovation in response to societal challenges”. “There is a world-wide increase of alternative forms of doctoral education based on collaboration between academia and work-life such as the professional doctorate” they reiterate (p. 524). The “alternative doctoral training models aim to broaden PhD candidate training”, say O'Connor (2023: 567). “The concept of [work-integrated learning] WIL has developed over time and is today an umbrella term covering education, collaboration, and research” (p. 525). An “approach for university-industry collaboration is work-integrated learning (WIL)”, with an industrial PhD focus, where “industrial PhD students embody the collaborative interplay between education and work influencing organizational learning” (p. 524). However, there is potential “tension between the tasks, time, and cognitive load required to develop qualified researchers as discipline stewards” indicate O'Connor (2023: 568). The design and delivery need to occur in a careful, considered and evidence-based manner he states, and advocates “four emergent design principles for alternative doctoral training models” (p. 569), namely:

• An increased range/breadth of content experts that are providing training to PhD candidates
• The scope of WIL activities and content delivery should be broader than commercialisation
• Adequately scaffold the WIL activities of PhD candidates, keeping in mind their specific needs and be observant of changing needs at different stages of their research candidature
• Purposefully co-designed WIL activities, because simply placing research students in an industry environment would not necessarily translate into powerful learning experiences

O'Connor (2023: 568) also state that PhD candidates should be attracted from any research discipline for whom the additional training is beneficial; but to avoid candidates where prior employment and experience do not match the research programme. He further cautions about potential disengagement due to ineffectual content or WIL activities; as well as “stress due to inadequate communication or management of candidate and supervisor needs”. He recommends minimisation of cognitive overload and workload associated with additional training, but without compromising effectiveness, because “doctoral candidates already experience a variety of stressors inherent to their PhD studies”. He indicates that “alternative doctoral training programs require resources, support systems, qualified personnel, peer networks, and content”.

The focus of knowledge creation by universities gradually shifted because industry recognised the value of creating knowledge indicate Bernhard and Olsson (2023). “University–industry interactions in doctoral education are of importance for mutual life-long learning by integrating workplace learning and research redeveloping work practices related to new concepts, technologies and organizational principles” (p. 507) they add. Industrial PhD students “are spanning boundaries between university and industry generating continuous opportunities for validation and testing of empirical results and models in industry” state Bernhard and Olsson (2020: 147). As key stakeholders industrial PhD students “embody the informing flows between practice and university and between practice and research”, enabling the “short-lag dissemination of research results”, “may enable increased research quality”, and strengthen legitimacy.

Stewart and Chen (2009: 167) remark that the work integrated research higher degree (WIRHD) emerged in an informal manner “for contemporary research students to develop both high-level professional capabilities in a real industry environment as well as strong research skills, which create knowledge through original research of academic rigour”. WIRHD further ensures relevance of engineering doctorates.

Ajjawi, R. & Kent, F. (2022). Understanding Realist Reviews for Medical Education. Journal of Graduate Medical Education, June. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4300/JGME-D-22-00334.1

Bernhard, I. & Olsson, A.K. (2020). University-industry collaboration in higher education: exploring the informing flows framework in industrial PhD education. Informing Science: The International Journal of an Emerging Transdiscipline, 23, 147-163. https://doi.org/10.28945/4672

Bernhard, I. & Olsson, A.K. (2023). One foot in academia and one in work-life – the case of Swedish industrial PhD students. Journal of Workplace Learning, 35(6). 506-523. https://doi.org/10.1108/JWL-11-2022-0157

Chen, L., Stewart, R.A., Willis, R. & Britton, T. (2008). Work integrated research higher degree studies: experiences, benefits, barriers and coping strategies. In: Mann, Llewellyn (Editor); Thompson, Adam (Editor); Howard, Prue (Editor). 19th Annual Conference of the Australasian Association for Engineering Education, Yeppoon: To Industry and Beyond; Proceedings of the. Barton, A.C.T.: Institution of Engineers, Australia, 2008: [129]-[134].

O'Connor, M.D., Denejkina, A. & Arvanitakis, J. (2023). Preparing doctoral candidates for employment: Delivering research and employability skills training in the PhD via work-integrated learning. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 24(1), 19-42. https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_24_1_19_42.pdf

O'Connor, M.D. (2023). Design principles for work-integrated learning-based, alternative doctoral training programs informed by PhD candidate feedback. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 24(4), 567-582. https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_24_4_567_582.pdf

Olsson, A.K. & Bernhard, I. (2023). Transforming doctoral education: Exploring industrial PhD collaboration in Sweden. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 24(4), 523-536. https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_24_4_523_536.pdf

Taylor, N. & Maxwell, T.W. (2004). Enhancing the relevance of a professional doctorate: The case of the Doctor of Education Degree at the University of New England. Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 5(1), 60-69. https://www.ijwil.org/files/APJCE_05_1_60_69.pdf

Treptow, R. (2013). The South African PhD: Insights from employer interviews. Perspectives in Education, 31(2), 83-91,142.

South African Government. (2014), Department of Higher Education and Training, Government Notice No 819. Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework. Government Gazette No. 38116, 17 October. https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201410/38116gon819.pdf

Stewart, R.A. & Chen, L. (2009). Developing a framework for work integrated research higher degree studies in an Australian engineering context, European Journal of Engineering Education, 34:2, 155-169. https://doi.org/10.1080/03043790902833325

Valencia-Forrester, F. (2019) Internships and the PhD: Is this the future direction of work-integrated learning in Australia? International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 20(4), 389-400. https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_20_4_389_400.pdf

Different forms, types or modalities of work-integrated learning (WIL)

The Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework (HEQSF) (South African Government, 2014) differentiates five forms work-integrated learning (WIL), and the imbedded WIL template, under section D (p. 8) of the Council on Higher Education (CHE, 2021), Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC) offline version of the online ‘Application for programme accreditation and qualification registration’, two more:

1. virtual or simulated learning,
2. work-directed theoretical learning (WDTL),
3. problem-based learning (PBL),
4. project-based learning (PjBL),
5. workplace-based learning (WPBL),
6. practicum placements,
7. service-learning, and so on.

The CHE’s Good Practice Guide (2011) advocates four distinct WIL curricular modalities, namely WDTL, PBL, PjBL and WPBL above. The eight definitions below were composed through consultation of several sources.

Practicum (plural practicums) placements	is a course/programme module, or part thereof, that involves involving activities emphasising the practical/clinical application of theory, knowledge and skills of the qualification curriculum; gaining on-the-job/vocation/professional experience; putting into practice; clinical/practical training; actual working in the area/field of study
Problem-based learning (PBL)	is a radical form of teaching which entail that ‘problems’, rather than academic subjects, as organising structure of the curriculum, with the main objective the acquisition of an extensive, integrated knowledge base. Problem-oriented learning is more commonly used and involves the inclusion of real-world scenarios for problem-based activities, assignments, and projects. Ill-structured problems stimulate the generation of multiple hypotheses or potential solutions. Ill-structured problems further allow students to observe, interview, and review records or documents to obtain needed information.
Project-based learning (PjBL)	involves learning through projects. Projects are either ‘real’ projects located in the world of work; or simulated with input from workplaces. Projects generally involve elements of research and supervision by both a university lecturer and workplace supervisor or mentor. PJBL enables the acquisition of an extensive, integrated knowledge base that students can draw on and apply to the analysis and solution of problems.
Service-learning	generally entails voluntary activities directed at specific community needs, applied learning and engaging in reflection to deepen understanding of what is being taught. It could be credit-bearing, if integrated into the curriculum of an academic programme and assessed as such., It may take place with an agency (usually a non-profit or social service group).
Simulated (or virtual) learning	means the learning and teaching technologies used to create artificial learning environments to enhance or replace a student’s actual experience with the world of work through simulations. For example, live projects, case studies, employer talks, role play, mentoring, and e-simulations.
Work-directed theoretical learning (WDTL)	enables the alignment of theoretical understanding with the practical or practice-based components and enabling students to apply such in the workplace. Presentations by workplace and/or professional practice may be used.
Work-integrated learning (WIL)	is used as an umbrella term to describe curricular, pedagogic and assessment practices, across a range of academic disciplines that integrate formal learning and workplace concerns. The International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning (IJWIL) defines WIL as "an educational approach that uses relevant work-based experiences to allow students to integrate theory with the meaningful practice of work as an intentional component of the curriculum. Defining elements of this educational approach require that students engage in authentic and meaningful work-related tasks, and must involve three stakeholders; the student, the university, and the workplace/community." (www.ijwil.org)
Workplace-based learning (WPBL)	happens when students are placed in work environments for the purposes of learning, which provides students with real life work experiences, in order internalise knowledge, skills and competencies, and gain insights through exposure to work by achieving specific outcomes. Both the HEQSF & CHE (2014) specify criteria for work(place)-based learning.

The Regulations (South African Government, 2018) for WPBL Agreements, lists nine forms of WPBL, requiring selection:

1. Apprenticeship
2. Learnership
3. Internship for the ‘N’ Diploma
4. Candidacy (postgrad for professional)
5. Student internship. Category A (for certificates & diplomas in HEQSF)
6. Student internship: Category B (requirement professional registration)
7. Student internship: Category C (for QCTO qualifications)
8. Student internship (SAQA qualification & vacation work)
9. Graduate internship (got qualification, to gain workplace experience)

Council on Higher Education (2011). Work-Integrated Learning: Good Practice Guide. HE Monitor No. 12, August 2011. Pretoria: IeCommunications. Electronically accessible from https://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/Higher_Education_Monitor_12.pdf

Council on Higher Education (2014). Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Programme Accreditation Criteria, pp. 81 – 107. In Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide. Electronically accessible from https://www.saide.org.za/documents/CHE_-_Distance_Higher_Education.pdf

Council on Higher Education (2021). Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC) offline version of the online ‘Application for programme accreditation and qualification registration’. https://www.che.ac.za/publications/submissions/heqc-offline-application

South African Government. (2014), Department of Higher Education and Training, Government Notice No 819. Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework. Government Gazette No. 38116, 17 October 2014. Electronically accessible from https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201410/38116gon819.pdf

South African Government. (2018). Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) workplace based learning programme agreement regulations. Department of Higher Education and Training. Government Gazette No 42037, 16 November 2018. Skills Development Act (Act 97 of 1998). https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201811/42037gon1241.pdf

The ‘e’ in eWIL representing entrepreneurial or embedded (work-integrated learning)

While doing literature searches on electronic work-integrated learning (eWIL), came across:

• Entrepreneurial Work-Integrated Learning (EWIL)
• Supervised Entrepreneurial Work-Integrated Learning (sEWIL)
• Embedding Work Integrated Learning (EWIL)

It used to frustrate me how authors coin terms without apparently considering or recognising existing meanings, often giving total new meanings to concepts in use. The word coin, in this context, means “to make; invent; [or] fabricate” an expression or phrase (Dictionary.com). Coin originates from Latin (cuneus), French (cuigne) and Middle English (coyn(e), coygne)—a stamping die to emboss a piece of metal to be issued by an authority, such as government, for use as money.

Eisenstein (2022: 2) indicates that experiential learning is preferred as pedagogy for entrepreneurship education; that work-integrated learning (WIL) in particular is gaining attention across higher education; and that “nine types have been identified: apprenticeship, Co-operative education, internships, entrepreneurship, service learning, applied research, professional/clinical practicum, field placement, and work experience”. Eisenstein (2022: 1) further indicates that there is “an increasing interest in entrepreneurship education across the disciplines, engineering programs included”, where “entrepreneurship education is delivered through the application of work-integrated learning pedagogy”; with “Supervised Entrepreneurial Work-Integrated Learning (sEWIL) is a particular modality of EWIL”. Eisenstein (2022: 1) explains that “engineering students learn about entrepreneurship through participation in a start-up working environment, where students directly observe and participate in the entrepreneurial working environment”. Tacit entrepreneurial knowledge is acquired through an authentic real-world learning environment and purposeful reflection, says Eisenstein.

Embedded Work Integrated Learning (EWIL) is explained by Doolan, Piggott, Chapman & Rycroft (2019: 91) as a specific model of Work Integrated Learning (WIL) where “students work with industry in small blocks of time at regular intervals throughout semester focussing on reflective learning in authentic work environments”. The structure and purpose of WIL and EWIL differ and “one cannot be substituted for the other”, say Doolan et al (2019: 92). WIL placements are often experienced by students as an intense time of day-to-day practice and obligations with little distance for detailed reflection on own learning. In contrast, “Embedded Work Integrated Learning (EWIL) strategically threads learning and reflection together over time”, which allows for deeper reflection and improvements of practices.

Doolan et al (2019: 93) present a case study of a degree which make use of both WIL and EWIL, “one where students spend a significant block of time working directly with industry partners … and another, where the WIL placement is strategically threaded or explicitly embedded into a subject throughout a semester and into subjects throughout the degree”. The inclusion of Embedded Work Integrated Learning (EWIL) “provides a slower more controlled approach to the practice of critical reflection guiding the practical application of skills”. EWIL is deemed “an effective pedagogical strategy to ensure students develop employability skills”, by Doolan et al (2019: 105), in “that all stakeholders benefit”. Students become more employable, industry gains highly skilled potential workers, and the reputation of universities is enhanced. However, the relationships between tertiary institutions and industry partners are crucial to successful EWIL.

Dictionary.com. https://www.dictionary.com/browse/coin

Doolan, M., Piggott, B., Chapman, S., & Rycroft, P. (2019). The Benefits and Challenges of Embedding Work Integrated Learning: A Case Study in a University Education Degree Program. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 44(6). http://dx.doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2018v44n6.6

Eisenstein, A. (2022). Engaging Engineering Students with Engineering Entrepreneurship and the Start-Up Working Environment through Supervised Entrepreneurial Work-Integrated Learning. Proceedings of the Canadian Engineering Education Association (CEEA). https://doi.org/10.24908/pceea.vi.15845

Preference of students for case studies as experiential learning-based assessments

Melo, Monteza, Colson and Zhang (2022: 15) found that “students have a clear preference for supporting experiential learning-based assessments, such as lab activities and simulations or analysis of case studies, and a strong dislike for assessments that involve supervised and time-constrained assessments (e.g., proctored exams)”. Furthermore, students also value professional presentations and final projects, they indicate. They further say that “most students would prefer assessments that are driving (develop different skills such as creative thinking) and realistic (develop skills transferable to the real world)” (p. 1). They state that “How students perceive assessment methods is critical because it can affect their learning experience and academic achievements”.

Melo, et al. (2022: 12) provide, in Fig 3 below, an intuitive interpretation of their research results. The “results reveal that participating in lab practices and simulations (presented to participants as practical activities that support technical skills rehearsal) and analyzing and discussing case studies (subjects were told that knowledge of the subject, good writing, and coherence are evaluated) were the most and second most desirable options that contribute to student learning”. Professional presentations, involving the use of audio-visual materials to assess knowledge of a topic, shown as the third most important form of assessment. A final project, although it demands more time and effort from students, is considered the fourth-most important form of assessment. The fifth most important is continuous quizzes of open-ended questions.

Melo, et al. (2022: 1) observe that “previous literature has not analyzed, from the student perspective, what methods are preferred for evaluating performance in experiential learning”. They made use of the best-worst scaling approach in two online surveys, involving 218 undergraduate students that were enrolled in experiential learning-based programs during the COVID-19 pandemic. They presented students with a description of several assessment formats and is confident that students understood the options. Table 1 below lists the assessment formats and table 2 the attributes that were identified for the research.

In contrast to rating scales, such as Likert scales, or approve/disapprove questions, Melo, et al. (2022) used the best-worst scaling (BWS) approach to adequately research preferences for various assessments. Unlike conventional approaches, where respondents are required to rank from “most important” to “least important”, BWS requires respondents to make trade-offs among alternatives. BWS further prevents a bias effect, and rankings among best-worst (BW) choices is deemed of lower cognitive difficulty for participants, relative to discrete choice experiments.

Melo, G., Monteza, D., Colson, G., Zhang, Y.Y. (2022). How to assess? Student preferences for methods to assess experiential learning: A best-worst scaling approach. PLoS ONE, 17(10). Electronically accessible from https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0276745.

‘Moving the needle’, through pursuing learning opportunities when disasters happen

The use of the phrase “proactively ‘move the needle’ toward”, by Heinz et al. (2021: 2), intrigued me. It is a powerful idiom, or metaphor, meaning “to cause a noticeable change in something. The imagery refers to the pointer (‘needle’) on a measuring instrument, which moves to indicate the level that has been reached” (Farlex Dictionary of Idioms). Synonyms for ‘move the needle’ include phrases with similar meaning, such as: to ‘make an impression’, or to ‘alter the situation’, or to ‘significantly change the course’, or to ‘make a noticeable difference’, or to ‘shift/turn/transform a situation’, or to ‘make a big difference’, or to ‘let the genie out of the bottle’ (Power Thesaurus).

Disasters, whether natural or human-made, disrupt the lives of people. Often post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and related problems develop as result of the impact of disasters. Disaster relief initiatives do offer significant community service and learning opportunities. The goal of intervention generally is to prevent a lasting impact of “community trauma and proactively ‘move the needle’ toward resilience” say Heinz et al. (2021: 2). The aftermath of wildfires, for example, present learning opportunities with regard to “mental health resources and services for personal recovery and long-term community resilience building”, and “mind–body yoga program and training in skills for psychological recovery (SPR)”.

A reflection on the role of public libraries before, during, and after Hurricane Michael in Florida, in 2018, revealed the reliance of vulnerable rural communities on public librarians for catastrophic weather support, say Mardis et al. (2021). However, disaster policies tend to be incomplete, outdated, or non-existing. With the frequency, severity, and variety of disasters increasing substantially; small public libraries often “serve as shelters, distribution points, and ad hoc government offices”, say Mardis et al. (2021: 769). The public librarians are often designated first responders and fulfilling a variety of roles such as “institutional supporter, collection manager, information disseminator, internal planner, community catalyst, government partner, educator, trainer, and information community builder”. It is recognised that “public librarians are uniquely positioned as key community stakeholders who assist communities to prepare for, respond to, and recover from disasters”, however, small rural public libraries are often ill equipped, say Mardis et al. (2021: 770).

Universities could ‘move the needle’ by having a community engagement disaster event plan ready, which includes experiential learning opportunities students. A range of potential outcomes could be identified. The preparation before, as well as reflection during and after formulated. The evidence requirements of learning, and the assessment criteria formulated. Not only would students benefit from learning, but also communities from the support rendered, and the university would gain.

Although disasters come in various forms of intensity, impact, and duration; the pattern of handling is similar, “beginning with preparation and planning for a possible event, then responding once the event occurs, followed by recovering from the event, while taking ongoing measures to mitigate the impact of recurrences” say Bland and McLain (2021: 10). Some come with advance warning, enabling alerts, whereas others arise with no warning. They categorised tragedies into four types, namely natural disasters, human-initiated tragedies, operational tragedies, and borderless tragedies.

Bland, R & McLain, L.F. (Jr). (2021). Managing through tragedies. Public Management, January, 10-15. International City/County Management Association (ICMA). Electronically accessible from https://icma.org/articles/pm-magazine/managing-through-tragedies

Farlex Dictionary of Idioms. https://idioms.thefreedictionary.com/moved+the+needle

Heinz, A. J., Wiltsey-Stirman, S., Sharin, T., Loskot, T., Mason, D., Jaworski, B. K., & McGovern, M. (2021). Rising from the ashes by expanding access to community care after disaster: an origin story of the wildfire mental health collaborative and preliminary findings. Psychological Services. Electronically accessible from. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ser0000553

Mardis, M.A., Jones, F.R., Tenney, C.S., & Leonarczyk, Z. (2021). Category 4: Constructing knowledge about public librarians’ roles in natural disasters: A heuristic inquiry into community resiliency in Florida’s Hurricane Michael. Library Trends, 69(4), 768-789. Johns Hopkins University Press. Electronically accessible from doi:10.1353/lib.2020.0046.

Power Thesaurus. https://www.powerthesaurus.org/move_the_needle/synonyms

Part of an active disaster management team as learning experience

Because competence in coping with natural and fabricated disasters is of increasing importance, disaster management became an integral part of the curriculum of, for example, nursing education. Often “first responders in the most acute phases of disaster to the long-term aftermath addressing loss, grief and posttraumatic stress disorders” include nurses, say Sickora et al. (2020: 30). Apart from “disaster preparedness theory and frameworks for intervention”, it is deemed essential to provide clinical “experiential learning opportunities”, which “often includes simulation experiences that range from mass casualty to active shooter”. Although less common, for students to become part of an active disaster management team, has been experienced as invaluable with remarks such as “I felt like a real nurse” and “This is the best experience I have had since I decided to become a nurse”. In this regard Strimel (2014) remark that natural disasters happen at the intersection between humans and nature, and having to face a current real-life issue, students are challenged with the issues at hand.

Disaster relief intervention, as experiential learning opportunity, is deemed to serve a dual purpose, namely (a) “meeting the needs of a community in real-time crisis”, and (b) providing “students with boots-on-the-ground disaster relief experiences”, say Sickora et al. (2020: 31). Similar to Buschlen, Warner and Goffnett (2015: 40), Sickora et al. (2020: 31) emphasise preparation of students before, and debriefing after their disaster intervention. Many students made requests to return, because of deeply affirming experiences, share Sickora et al. (2020).

Sickora et al. (2020: 32) caution that “organization is crucial throughout an effective disaster relief intervention and that initial logistics are challenging and time consuming”, as well as that all stakeholders need to be identified, and resources secured. “Coordination and collaboration with indigenous health care providers and other resources, such as charities and nongovernment organizations” are essential. Long-range preplanning is important, as is effective administration to “ensure proper tracking of disaster relief execution, patient medications, nurse and staff log-ins and log-outs, and patient contact information are also key factors in the effort”. “Keeping a cool head and rolling with the punches” while rendering disaster relief is vital. Practicalities, such as, translators make a significant difference. On-site, fellow relief “workers, such as those providing assistance in construction, debris removal, or road repair, are also in need of care for a variety of maladies, ranging from heat exhaustion to insect bites and wound care”, which suggest a need for multi-disciplinary collaboration.

Buschlen, E., Warner, C. & Goffnett, S. (2015). Leadership education and service: Exploring transformational learning following a tornado. Journal of Leadership Education, 14(1), 33-54. https://journalofleadershiped.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/14_1_buschlen.pdf

Sickora, C., Salt, R.J., Page, T.S., Lee, W., Cantu, A.G., Lee, M., Schwab, K.W., Martinez, M.L., Byrd, D. (2020). Evolution of experiential learning opportunities for nursing students after natural disaster. Journal of Nursing Education, 59(1), 30-33. Electronically accessible from https://doi.org/10.3928/01484834-20191223-07.

Strimel, G. (2014). Authentic education by providing a situation for student-selected problem-based learning. Technology and Engineering Teacher, 73 (7), 8-18. Abstract accessible from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1049199

Students deriving learning opportunities by responding to natural disasters

Universities often struggle to secure sufficient workplace learning opportunities. Disasters, however, may offer suitable learning opportunities. This post presents ‘prompt-based journaling’ as means of facilitation of learning.

“Each year, millions of people around the world are affected by natural disasters” say Buschlen, Warner and Goffnett (2015: 33). Often universities recognise both the service learning and development of responsible citizenship opportunities involved for students, through relief community engagements, to among others, implement theoretical concepts learned. Major events such as tornados, hurricanes, tsunamis, floods, earthquakes, fires, heat waves, droughts, epidemics, pandemics, diseases, and volcanic eruptions; all require substantial humanitarian logistics relief in order to alleviate suffering and reintroduce supply. “Climate change and environmental degradation, political instability, and chronic poverty and inequality are significant drivers of forced displacement” of people, say Wessells and Kostelny (2021: 225). There is an “increased global awareness of the need for mental health and psychosocial support amidst disasters” they state, and draw attention to Hippocrates ‘Do No Harm’ principle issues such as “poor coordination, the monetization of aid, excessive targeting of aid, the imposition of Western modes of psychiatric and medicalized support, too little attention to capacity building and sustainability, and the marginalization of collective self-help and indigenous, cultural and social supports”.

Often large numbers of people are subjected to traumatic events before, during, and after disasters, with result that trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) become prevalent. Forcibly displaced people furthermore often face myriad social, cultural, and everyday distresses as result of weakened or shattered social support and controls. Apart from lack of basic necessities such as food, health care, or shelter; there are family separation, ongoing insecurity and lack of protection, inability to engage in cultural or religious practices, sexual exploitation and abuse, trafficking, recruitment into armed forces or groups, etc.

Prompt-based journaling could be used as means of facilitating learning. Buschlen, Warner and Goffnett (2015: 40) recommend that journal prompts are written in advance and given in sealed envelopes to participanting students, taped inside the cover of a blank notebook. They made use of three prompts, each in a separate envelope, with specific instructions when to open, namely before travelling to the disaster site; during the relief work while on site; and 30 days after the experience; where after journals are completed and returned. Because of the emotional and reflective nature of the data, participating students may request the return of their journal after transcription.

Buschlen, Warner and Goffnett (2015: 36) point out that the ‘3 Rs’, reality, reflection, and reciprocity are essential design elements of service learning, where students learn “from a situation while meeting other process or stakeholder needs”. A natural disaster (reality) would provoke students to engage, “and their personal reflections can ultimately transform into permanent knowledge and skill”. Transformational learning is derived because “Reflections on the service experience expand knowledge to achieve deeper learning”.

Buschlen, E., Warner, C. & Goffnett, S. (2015). Leadership education and service: Exploring transformational learning following a tornado. Journal of Leadership Education, 14(1), 33-54. https://journalofleadershiped.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/14_1_buschlen.pdf

Wessells, M. & Kostelny, K. (2021). Do no harm issues in psychosocial support: Post-tsunami practitioner learning in Sri Lanka. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 12(3), 225–233. https://doi.org/10.1037/aap0000191

Beyond ‘panic-gogy’ to adoption of innovative WIL pedagogies and practices

The “COVID-19 pandemic has provided a sudden and significant driver for rapid change and adoption of innovative online WIL pedagogies and practices” say Dean and Campbell (2021: 355). They argue for moving beyond the initial ‘panic-gogy’ to quality, innovative, and sustainable non-placement models of WIL. ‘Panic-gogy’ is a tongue-in-cheek term coined for the transitional online pedagogies pursued during the COVID-19 pandemic. Baker (2020: 1) quoted Morris who says “the term being batted about on Twitter … referring to this idea of just grasping at straws, trying to figure out what you could possibly do … suddenly forced to go online and experiencing that kind of panic”. Educators had been seeking pedagogies to bridge the gap, to retain some kind of normality, a pedagogy of resilience, of kindness, very flexible and human-centred.

Dean and Campbell (2021) indicate that the disruptions caused by COVID-19, accelerated many emerging changes with the required rapid move to online and/or distance learning models. The “value of alternative forms of work-integrated learning (WIL), in spaces other than physical workplaces, has been realized“, they observe. After the initial state of ‘panic-gogy’, with rife experimentation, purposeful design of ‘non-placement work-integrated learning’ (NPWIL) now requires attention. Experiences shown that different models and approaches can provide authenticity of work practices.

The ways of working, as well as where work is undertaken, are evolving. “Work is no longer simply completed within the confines of a bounded office and constraints of time periods”, observe Dean and Campbell (2021: 355); with for example, “remote work settings, fluid time constraints and continuous connectivity” becoming common practice. However, there is not consistency across the economy with regard to the changing nature of work. Changes tend to be industry and sector specific, as well as piece-meal, often driven by organisational specific goals.

Dean and Campbell (2021: 357) postulate that “with both the constructs of work and learning evolving rapidly as a consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic it is an inevitability that WIL, which connects these two worlds, also has to transform”. They remark that over the past two decades WIL models have been steadily experiencing innovation and a range of alternative models of WIL have emerged. Furthermore, as result of the changing world of work graduates needed to develop diverse and transferable skills.

Dean and Campbell (2021: 357) mention WIL models such as micro-placements, hackathons, competitions and events; including models beyond workplace-based experiences or requiring extensive time in workplaces, such as engaging students through short, authentic activities; and partnering with, or creating small-to-medium enterprises (SMEs) to develop entrepreneurial skills. They observe that the notion of the building of SMEs spurred the development of start-ups, consultations and incubators. WIL models further are increasingly multi-disciplinary within industry contexts, as well as engaging students from across disciplinary areas through interdisciplinary WIL. The location of WIL is further broadened beyond local contexts, with global mobility. Some WIL models are moving beyond physical constraints, by using technological platforms, online projects, virtual placements and various forms of online simulations.

Challenges such as teaching to large cohorts, resource limitations or scalability, and needing to provide access to all students, emphasise the need for one-to-many WIL models (i.e. replacing the one workplace supervisor or mentor guiding the work of one student or small group of students, “with multiple staff across an organisation working with, guiding and coaching large cohorts of students”), say Dean and Campbell (2021: 357). An increased agile curriculum, which allow for increased variability in student experiences, is required. Hopefully, such shorter, less resource intensive WIL models, would result in increased willingness of industry and also community, to partner with higher education institutions.

The COVID-19 pandemic induced ‘pivot online’ may, ponder Dean and Campbell (2021), be the catalyst to move towards more inclusive WIL approaches, such as opportunities for students in regional and rural settings; bespoke activities or partnership experiences, and/or scaling WIL through novel, collaborative, virtual platforms. Higher Education institutions “need to enquire into the needs of industry and community and explore how we can work together, think outside-the-box, and design authentic experiences for student cohorts” say Dean and Campbell (2021: 358). “Placements are not the only solution to authentic work practice when work practice itself continues to shift and is enabled by technology, they argue (p. 360).

Dean, B.A. & Campbell, M. (2021). Reshaping work-integrated learning in a post-COVID-19 world of work. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 21(4), 355-364. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_21_4_355_364.pdf

Baker, K.J. (2020). Panic-gogy: A Conversation With Sean Michael Morris. The National Teaching& Learning Forum, 29(4), 1-3. Electronically accessible from https://doi.org/10.1002/ntlf.30239

What competences; which experiences; and feasibility?

For teaching and learning, the central—“constituting something from which other related things proceed or upon which they depend”—issue, is the expected/stated outcomes (such as knowledge, skills, and attitudes), and/or competencies.

Once the expected outcomes and/or competencies are known, careful consideration must be given to which learning experiences are most likely to accomplish those; and the feasibility of providing such.

Certain learning is best acquired (or accomplished) through contextual experience/s, application, and reflection. A number of conditions are of significance pertaining contextual experiences, such as:

• The degree of authenticity (or genuineness) for learning that is provided
• The degree of fidelity (or proximity) with regard to reality
• The extent of interactivity (and immersivity) made feasible

The extent to which the occupational-field/the profession/the community-of-practice/vocational representatives were involved in determining the learning outcomes; and in particular the expression of willingness to support the teaching, by providing real-life learning opportunities, is a major deciding factor. Without adequate support, and the provision of access to contextual learning experiences, the options are reduced; and workplace-learning placements become a substantial challenge.

Workplace/clinical-field/professional/vocational realities, however, do not always permit actual exposure. This could be due to for example security/confidentiality/safety/sensitivity. In such circumstances, the realities could be simulated in a variety of ways in order to provide alternative experiences with the objective of achieving the stated learning outcomes.

The aforesaid highlight some of the teaching-design considerations, however, there are many other issues to consider, and a range of options and possibilities. Some of the potential modes of teaching include:

• Work-integrated/workplace/work-based learning, clinical training/professional practice/placement
• Project- and problem-based learning, work-based project, and live projects
• Case-based learning, case studies, case methods, life course/experience, and story telling
• Studio-based learning, studio-work, studios, and problem solving
• Service learning, community engagement, and role plays
• Virtual learning environments, virtual reality, and a range of potential simulations
• Non-placement work-integrated learning
• Work-directed theoretical learning, and projects

Manageable approach to Live Case Studies for larger student cohorts

In order to fulfil the expectations of industry for “highly skilled, adaptable and flexible graduates”, “who are change savvy, capable of solving complex and ambiguous problems”, and who are “work ready”, “universities should adopt pedagogical methods mirroring challenges faced in the workplace” say Schonell and Macklin (2019: 1197). They advocate ‘Live Case Studies’ (LCSs) as a means “to engage learners in approximations of desired future performances”; qualifying that “LCSs are a form of ‘work integrated learning’ (WIL), an umbrella term for student centred, structured education strategies that facilitate the integration of academic theoretical knowledge with experiential knowledge gained in practice contexts”. They remark that LCSs has significant currency in higher education “as a method where students are emotionally and behaviourally involved in experiential learning”. They indicate that “LCSs are experiential and highly authentic forms of learning that are fully embedded or integrated in academic” (p. 1199).

Although “the LCS approach is typically resource intensive”, Schonell and Macklin (2019: 1197) believe their “approach to LCS is suitable for all institutions, regardless of funding or time constraints”, including “publicly funded institutions where student numbers are high and funding is tight”. They acknowledge that LCSs generally require of “Lecturers [to] spend considerable time finding a business or professional practice provider, initiating contact, determining case details, supervising students and coordinating the case project” (p. 1199). Of particular importance, say Schonell and Macklin (2019: 1205) are “establishing strong networks with potential case study organisations”. Although “‘cold-calling’ on workplaces can lead to fortuitous opportunities” they admit, “an academic’s networks are likely to lead to less rejections and time delays”. They further indicate that preparatory planning should take into account unpredictability, such as changes in strategy that may lead to workplaces, for example, withdrawing their participation. Live cases furthermore cannot be left to run on their own without overseeing.

A live case study “enables students to engage with and evaluate real-world contemporary practice more effectively than traditional written cases while offering a WIL opportunity to a large group of students” say Schonell and Macklin (2019: 1201). They remark that their “LCSs enabled students to study real practices, fostering deep engagement with the discipline and moving their thinking beyond the abstract towards a dynamic interaction with” practitioners, and that “many students saw the LCS as an opportunity to apply their emerging understanding of theory and practice to real and weighty problems”. The LCS presentations and reports suggest students exceeded ‘minimum required effort’ attitude to pass, and instead reflect insights ground in literature and fitting to circumstances faced by the LCS organisations.

The efficiency of live case studies can be improved, and significant time savings achieved, through group-based assessment, indicate Schonell and Macklin (2019: 1201). Group assessment further contributes to team-based work which adds to authenticity, and mimics workplace realities, they say. However, that acknowledge that group work is sometimes put at risk by freeloaders, interpersonal conflicts, and around grade distribution. To overcome the potential of freeloading, they recommend requiring of groups write up and submit meeting minutes. Those students not minuted as participating would lose marks.

Schonell, S. & Macklin, R. (2019). Work integrated learning initiatives: live case studies as a mainstream WIL assessment. Studies in Higher Education, 44(7), 1197-1208. Electronically accessible from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03075079.2018.1425986

Core values of a medical residency programme

‘Residency’ refers to “the period during which a physician gets specialized clinical training”. The Northeast Georgia Medical Center (NGMC) Graduate Medical Education offers an Emergency Medicine Residency, “a three-year program designed to provide residents with top-notch clinical training”, a term used in the field of medicine for work-integrated learning, meaning among others ‘related to the bedside of a patient, the observation and treatment’.

‘NGMC Emergency Medicine Residency’ tweeted 24 September 2021: “We believe that any major endeavor -- like starting a new residency -- should be mission-driven and purposeful. We spent a lot of time developing our 6 official (and 1 unofficial) core values that impact and drive everything we do in our residency. Here are our core values:”

• Core value 1: Clinical education and becoming a good EM doctor is foundational -- the bedrock of any career in emergency medicine. If you want to be a leader, administrator, researcher, advocate, or teacher, you first have to be a good doctor and take good care of patients
• Core value 2: We serve our patients best by actively cultivating an environment of respect for diversity. A diversity of ideas, backgrounds, and experiences, makes us all better and helps us provide better medical care for our patients
• Core value 3: We have a firm expectation of honesty, integrity, and transparency at all levels of leadership. We hold ourselves to a high standard and we will hold our residents to a high standard
• Core value 4: We will always push ourselves and challenge ourselves to be better. We want to exist outside our comfort zone in order to continually grow, improve, and be resilient
• Core value 5: We recognize that residents and physicians perform their best when they have ownership of their work environment and educational environment. We want to recruit high achievers and give them the means and opportunity to develop their own path in medicine
• Core value 6: We believe the best learning comes from unofficial mentorship and we will cultivate a collegial and family feel amongst our residents and faculty
• Unofficial core value 7: Food is love. We will feed our residents, their families, and their children and welcome them into our homes and prepare meals for them

We are looking for residents who are similarly mission-driven, who want to push themselves, who want to be challenged, who are innovative, and who want to impact future generations of emergency medicine!”

The programme webpage states “Training in the fast-paced, high-volume emergency departments and learning from passionate, experienced educators at Northeast Georgia Emergency Medicine Residency will prepare graduates to work in any environment world-wide and will be a springboard for a long and satisfying career in emergency medicine.”

Source

Key determinants in achieving an optimum studio-based learning experience

“Studio-based learning (SBL) is a teaching and learning methodology that combines different learning pedagogies such as social constructivist, problem-based, and active learning to mimic real-world working experience.” say Kumar, Silva and Prelath (2020: 611). As result of the successes in providing a real-world industry experience through studio-based learning, the application has been extended as pedagogical approach to many fields, such as engineering, programming, communication, entrepreneurship and non-arts programs.

Technological advancements changed the way we live and learn. “The 21st century has seen the move to an era in which information, innovation, creativity and imagination are important attributes”, which “are seen to be the backbone of the new economic world” say Fung (2015: 71). Entrepreneurial and creative industries are triggers for economic development and therefore of increasing importance, indicate Fung (2015: 72), because such “provides job opportunities, creates wealth, produces consumer goods and services for local and overseas markets, and enables growth in overall consumption”. Studio-based learning is deemed a means to stimulate creativity and entrepreneurship development.

The essence of studio-based learning lies in providing students the opportunity to actively apply their knowledge by developing “projects through an iterative cycle that involves problem-solving, collaboration, and autonomous learning”, say Kumar, et al. (2020: 612). An authentic learning experience is enabled through critical review of projects, while going through the iterative cycle, by fellow team members, peers, instructors/lecturers, and potentially industry professionals, and real clients. This provides students with a glimpse to real workplace issues and motivation to resolve problems critically. Problems are deemed essential, because students are prepared to face obstacles by learning and adapting. Kumar, et al. (2020: 613) identify six fundamentals steps to implement studio-based learning:

1. Identifying projects that can be executed through different methods
2. Project implementation individually or through teamwork
3. Project presentation
4. Constructive feedback from peers or mentors (critique session) which may be done face-to-face or online
5. Alteration for resubmission or presentation
6. Repeat of steps 1 to 5

Fung (2015: 73-74) group the studio-based learning process into parts, illustrated in Figure 1 (p. 74):

1. The project brief, which is set out by the teachers according to the skills required to be learnt by students at different stages of their study. Often the project brief is the stimulus for creative ideas, strategies and a holistic view of the planning for creative outcomes, and should be interesting, motivating, realistic, mindful, clearly defined, and giving freedom of design deliverables.
2. Features of studio-based learning, including the studio, participants (teachers and students) and critique.
3. Learning process by students, via learning-by-doing and problem-solving skills; these involve the reiteration of ideas during the critique from teacher to student until the maturity of the idea and/or the approach of the deadline.
4. Learning outcomes, which include the presentation and determination of final ideas and portfolio respectively.

Fung (2015: 74) emphasises the role of the lecturer (teachers) and students, as important informants; but focusses on the project brief, features of studio-based learning, learning process and learning outcomes act as the framework, as illustrated in Figure 2. She undertook research to identify the key contributing factors to optimise studio-based learning practice. Five key determinants were identified that are influencing optimum studio-based learning, namely the behaviour of the teacher, management of expectations, exposure to industry, the design of the project brief, and the communication channels (pp. 82-83). Fung (2015: 90) superimposed these to her studio-based learning model, thereby indicating that “teachers’ behaviours, expectation management and industry exposure are interconnected in affecting students’ motivation to learn”. Furthermore communication channels and project brief designs are deemed important determinants towards optimisation of the studio-based learning process.

Fung, M.S.K. (2015). Studio-based learning experiences in vocational design education in Hong Kong. International Journal of Continuing Education and Lifelong Learning, 7(2), 71-96. https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/informit.219519164808585

Kumar, J.A., Silva, P.A. & Prelath, R. (2020). Implementing studio‑based learning for design education: a study on the perception and challenges of Malaysian undergraduates. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 31, 611–631. Available at: https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10798-020-09566-1.pdf

Case-based learning instructional model

In an article published under Creative Commons Attribution License terms, Şen-Akbulut and Hill (2020) present a four phase instructional model for case-based pedagogy, for specifically teacher education, which could probably be generalised. The four sequential phases, left to right, are preceded by introductory activities. The model portrays three levels, namely (a) the design principles, at the top, below the introductory activities, informing each phase; (b) the instructor/lecturer’s role in the middle; and (c) the role of the students at the bottom.

Five design principles are deemed essential to constructivist pedagogy, say Şen-Akbulut and Hill (2020):

1. Learning should be embed in both authentic and relevant contexts, because for learning to enable more efficient functioning the relevance should be evident. From a social constructivist perspective, learning should be authentic, because individuals need to construct knowledge personally, as well as mediate that knowledge socially. In the case-based learning context the complexity and uncertainty of reality should be portrayed.
2. Learning should, from a constructivist perspective, be embed in social experience, in order to facilitate development of socially relevant skills. Individual construct understanding from social experiences, either validating knowledge structures, or contradicting them. The learning context should therefore encourage collaboration between all individuals involved. All students should prepare, share different perspectives; contribute to suggesting solutions; and reflect on the final proposed solution.
3. Social constructivism emphasises alternative views and encourages testing of ideas against multiple perspectives. There is no special ‘truth’, instead there could be a multitude of perceptual understandings which could transpire being more suitable. Learning should provide opportunities to engage in activities, enabling evaluation of alternative solutions as a means to evolving knowledge. Case materials should (a) allow curation of information from different sources and examining of issues from a variety of perspectives; as well as (b) allow for multiple correct responses and decision-making opportunities.
4. Underlying constructivism is the notion of providing opportunities for reflection. Students should be capable of explaining why and how they solved a problem in a certain way. The learning context should provide for time to think and evaluate the adequacy of required knowledge.
5. In order to challenge and support thinking cognitive conflict is necessary. The lecturer’s role is to guide students to an awareness of own meanings by challenging, supporting, and guiding; however not to lead to any specific conclusion.

Design principle (DP) 1 above applies to the first phase, namely the inquiry focus, with roles as indicated in the model. Both DP 2 & 3 apply to the second phase, which pertains to space and time for consideration. Three design principle, DP 3, 4 & 5, pertain to the third phase, active participation in learning; and DP 4 to the fourth phase, synthesize key ideas and practices. The model is derived from a University of Georgia 2017 doctoral dissertation.

Şen-Akbulut, M. & Hill, J.R. (2020). Case-based pedagogy for teacher education: an instructional model. Contemporary Education (Cont Ed) Technology, 12(2), ep287. Accessible from https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/8937

Stolen Knowledge

‘Stolen knowledge’ is about acquired learning, a pedagogical strategy traced back to Lave and Wenger (1991), a process where ‘newcomers’ become ‘old-timers’ as they move from legitimate peripheral participation (LPP) to full participation. Brown and Duguid (1996) use the notion ‘stolen knowledge’ to describe learning taking place in authentic practice. Learners acquire (steal) implicit knowledge by being present, and by participating in the sociocultural context, characterized by a series of circumstances and interactions. Workplace mentors should engage students in on-demand learning, and make it feasible for students to experience full-blooded practice. A great deal of practice remains implicit in practice itself. Opportunities should made feasible for students (learners) to ‘steal’ the knowledge and abilities (keys) needed for role taking in a community of practice.

Sally Burford, S.; Cooper, L. & Miller, F. (2020). Stolen knowledge: Student knowing in workplace practice. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 21(2), 163-176. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_21_2_163_176.pdf

Chen. P. (2012). Field experiences in instructional design and technology: Legitimate participation and stolen knowledge. Journal of Educational Technology Development and Exchange, 5(1), 13-28.

Live Projects and Scaffolded WIL

“A live project comprises the negotiation of a brief, timescale, budget and product between an educational organisation and an external collaborator for their mutual benefit. The project must be structured to ensure that students gain learning that is relevant to their educational development.” say Anderson and Priest (2020). They elaborate, that they ‘tried to make this definition representative of the common factors’, as well as ‘to be as inclusive as possible’, of scope (wealth, variations, and diverse motivations for) of live project practice that they have observed. Live Projects are “pedagogic means to extend the institutional confines of the design studio”, and may also be referred to as ‘Design Build Projects’, ‘Live Build Projects’, ‘Real Projects’ and ‘Service Learning’. Similarly, the University of Sheffield School of Architecture (2020) state that ”Live Projects set real constraints, responding to budget, brief and time. In each project students and clients work together to define the project and develop a brief”.

Tezcan, Durakovic, Smith, Lloyd, and D'arcy (2020: 522) report on re-framing the scholarly discussions about the ‘design studio’, and the nuances of design studio teaching strategies and pedagogy. They observe that “the live project model is commonly adopted by universities globally as a means of offering architecture students the opportunity for workplace practice-learning”, and argue “live projects form an embedded, scaffolded core subject in design studio education, rather than discreet, standalone offerings”. They indicate that work-integrated learning (WIL) “is an umbrella term for the integration of academic theory with workplace application”, and state that scaffolded WIL “involves a sequence of WIL experiences that structure core disciplinary subjects within a program curriculum”. Scaffolding is not merely a rickety structure, but a well-designed curriculum to move students toward career readiness and professional practice. The live project model resembles both the workplace and professional practice; and “it promotes deep, transformational and authentic learning” (Tezcan et al., 2020: 524).

Tezcan et al. (2020), however, do express concern about (among others) the financial constraints pertaining live projects, in particular the potential accumulation of costs incurred by both students and universities, which may result in depletion of resources. Adaptation of the South African sector education and training authority (SETA) funding disbursement is recommended. Pursuing of live projects for reconstruction and development should further be pursued.

About Live Projects. 2020 The University of Sheffield School of Architecture. Electronically accessible from http://www.liveprojects.org/about/2/

Anderson, J & Priest, C. 2020. About (web page), Live Projects Network. Electronically accessible from https://liveprojectsnetwork.org/about/

Tezcan, N.; Durakovic, I.; Smith, C.; Lloyd, E. & D'arcy, S. 2020. Scaffolded, simulated work-integrated learning in design education: Beyond the live project. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 21(5), 521-529. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_21_5_521_529.pdf

How work-integrated learning could possibly mitigate some anticipated challenges with respect to the future of work

“The future of work and how to best prepare for it is one of the biggest challenges currently facing governments, employers, educators, and policy makers” say Tara Stevens, Judene Pretti, Norah McRae, from the University of Waterloo. They synthesised 32 contemporary reports and produced an online document which identified six major future of work trends. The further made recommendations about how work-integrated learning could help mitigate some of the anticipated challenges with respect to the future of work.

1. ADVANCES IN TECHNOLOGY—the threats of increased technology, artificial intelligence and automation call for a talent pipeline with appropriate human and technical skill development. Work-integrated learning could contribute to bridging the gap between graduate attributes and industry requirements. Students could reverse mentor workplaces with regard to digital skills and new technologies.
2. DEVELOPING SKILL AGILITY AND TRANSFERABILITY—increasingly needs for complementary skills, agility and ‘hybrid roles’ are evident, which could be developed through work-integrated learning.
3. RESPONSIBILITY FOR ADAPTATION TO THE FUTURE OF WORK—increasingly employees experience pressures to remain abreast and continue to update their skills through lifelong learning. Work-integrated learning is believed to not only lay a foundation, but also serve as model for mid-career upskilling and/or re-skilling.
4. FOSTERING CULTURES OF DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION—needs for more culturally, racial and demographically diverse and heterogeneous employees are experienced. The reflective and reflexive nature of good work-integrated learning practice may contribute increased self-awareness, uncovering of biases, and enhance cultural awareness.
5. THE GIG ECONOMY AND PRECARIOUS WORK—with a increase in gig work, less social protection and financial stability are experienced. Stints of work-integrated learning may provide first hand experiences and awareness of the implications of precarious work and the associated realities and challenges.
6. EMPLOYEE VS. ORGANIZATIONAL VALUES—widening gaps between organisational and personal values are observed. Work-integrated learning could aid students in gaining clarity on own values, as well as an awareness of what talents organisations need. This in turn would contribute to more purposeful engagement after graduation. Organisations in turn could benefit from participating in work-integrated learning provision by more efficient job design, talent attraction and post-graduate conversion and retention.

Perusal of the full online publication is recommended.

Online programmes which include work-integrated learning could pose serious pedagogical challenges

An increasing need for the flexibility of fully online study while earning, in order to enhance career trajectories, is prevalent. However, “implementing online learning can pose serious pedagogical challenges particularly when programs contain work-integrated learning (WIL) components”, if not perceived as ‘can’t be done’, say Quinn, Cioffi, Hill, Kor, Longford, Moller and Rathore (2019: 1). Contrary to online learning frequently being perceived as a passive and second class; the practical outcomes are accomplishable.

A wide-dispersion of online students renders it impractical to include a shared physical learning site. Quinn et al. (2019) report, for example, on the creation of an interactive virtual learning environment, in collaboration with construction companies, through significant state funding, portraying the construction of an eight-storey building. This high quality resource is supplemented by “comparatively low-cost environments demonstrating the construction of a residential, industrial, and multi-storey building construction sites”, including “embedded images, explanatory videos and documents which students can interact with” (Quinn et al. 2019). Virtual site visits, “comparable to traditional site visits”, are embedded in online learning materials in order to “motivate students to reflect on and refine their understandings based on the authentic context they are experiencing”.

Quinn et al. (2019) report the benefits construction management, for example, students reap from repeat visits to the same site, namely appreciating “the spatial constraints (e.g. how construction products are related to one another in a particular building site) and temporal constraints (e.g. the dependencies for coordinating subcontractors)” as well as “how these constraints change over the life of the building project”. However, difficulties in aligning the timing of visits to construction sites could result in students developing a piecemeal understanding of the construction worksite. Virtual field trips include, for example, augmented realities; simulations; and learning environments making use of 360-degree images of the construction of a building over time; contribute to a four- dimensional virtual work-integrated learning environment.

Quinn, D.; Cioffi, E.; Hill, S.; Kor, M.; Longford, A.; Moller, R.; & Rathore, P. (2019). Implementing work-integrated learning in online construction management courses. Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice, 16(1). Available at: https://ro.uow.edu.au/jutlp/vol16/iss1/9

A comprehensive framework for assuring the quality of work-integrated learning

Much emphasis is placed on the notion of ‘quality’, on quality assurance measures and initiatives, and on improvement plans (or frameworks), state McRae, Pretti and Church (2019: 1-2). Quality could be described as a desired end-state, a striving for excellence.

There are a number of frameworks of quality standards deemed relevant:

• Smith’s (2012) framework for evaluation of the work-integrated learning (WIL) curriculum proposes six measures of specific domains, namely authenticity, integrated learning support, alignment, supervisor access, and induction (or preparation processes)
• The Council on Higher Education (2014) criteria for the coordination of work-based learning programmes presented by distance higher education institutions.
• The McRae, Pretti and Church (2019) triple-A star (AAA★) framework below, comprising five main sections, namely (1) the foundation, concepts, terminology and five stakeholder groups (students, host organisations/employers, the educators, academic institutions, and governments—in each of the stakeholder groups there are potentially “advocates”, which are bodies representing the interests of and/or supporting the group); (2) the participation aims of each of the stakeholders; (3) the actions by each of the stakeholders that is critical for quality; (4) the expected achievements (or outcomes, impacts, measures, and key performance indicators) for each of the stakeholders; and (5) finally a synthesis of four sections, as well as an outline of a continuous improvement process.

Figure: Triple-A star (AAA★) framework (McRae, Pretti & Church, 2019: 1)

Whereas the Council on Higher Education (2014) reiterates the 2004 accreditation criteria; Smith (2012: 250) presents a new evaluation framework which structurally and conceptually divides the WIL curriculum into six domains or constructs:

1. Authenticity
2. Alignment of teaching and learning activities with integrative learning objectives (Align-TLA)
3. Alignment of assessment with integrative learning objectives (Align-Asst)
4. Integrated Learning Support (across the two university and workplace sites) (ILS)
5. Supervisor Access (Sup. Access)
6. Induction and Preparation Processes (IPP)

The Council on Higher Education (2014) furthermore persists with the use of the term work-based learning (and the coordination thereof), whereas Smith (2012: 250) asserts that authenticity “is at the heart of all workplace-situated learning”. Smith (2012: 247) asserts that work-integrated learning (WIL) entails students spending time “in professional, work or other practice settings relevant to their degrees of study and to their occupational futures”; but points out that “WIL is not the same as work experience or work-based learning, neither of which require students to specifically learn, apply or integrate canonical disciplinary knowledge”. Both physical authenticity (providing students with real work environments) and cognitive authenticity (where students personally engage in, encounter, and participate in meaningful and relevant learning within the specified disciplinary framework) of curricula are deemed important. The authenticity is assessed with regard to what extent the environment would expose students to the real work settings and to which students can observe, interact and respond to that particular context. Projects should be meaningful and consequential. Freestone, Williams, Thompson and Trembath (2007) illustrate the application of a variant of the Course Experience Questionnaire (CEQ), namely the Work Experience Questionnaire (WEQ), as measure of the workplace learning experiences of students. The WEQ had been designed to explore the perceptions of students about their learning environment. The WEQ requires students to respond on a conventional five-point scale, ranging from strong disagreement (1), through to strong agreement/concurrence (5), with the intermediate points not labelled. The dimensions of ‘clear goals’ and ‘support for learning’ have been found to correlate highly with student learning. The WEQ questionnaire consisting of 33 items (questions), with items bundled into scales, namely:

• Clear Goals Scale (3 items)
• Support for Learning Scale (5 items)
• Generic Skills Scale (5 items)
• Menial Tasks Scale (3 items)
• Overall Satisfaction (1 item)
• Ungrouped individual questions (7 items)
• Additional Generic Skills (9 items).

Conceptually, there is a substantial difference between what is deemed quality. Whereas the Council on Higher Education (2014) focusses on various elements of coordination; Smith (2012) focusses on what constitutes good teaching and learning. He (p. 248) argues that WIL “focuses attention on the integration of discipline learning and workplace practice or application”. Smith (2012: 251) advances the “notion of the constructive alignment of learning objectives with teaching and learning activities (TLAs) and assessments”. He alludes to the fact that during WIL placements students are not at their host universities, but at workplaces, and therefore urges curriculum design deliberately integrated support services in the delivery, in order to improve the individual learning by alleviating stress. This up with the management of pedagogical aspects through induction and preparing students, both pedagogically and practically. Smith (2012: 252) recognises that such present an extra burden on academics, which is compounded by the need for maintaining contact “between the academic convenor (or appropriate others – e.g. tutors) and students in situ” (notion of supervisor access).

McRae, Pretti and Church (2019: 7) assert that “WIL is a collaborative endeavour and the perspectives of multiple stakeholders need to be incorporated to ensure the quality of WIL outcomes” and elaborate that “each of these stakeholders has a connection to quality WIL as described by the key aspects identified by P.E.A.R.”:

• P for pedagogy — the curriculum needs to be designed “to allow students and host organizations to make the most of the experience and students need to engage with the curriculum”
• E for experience — “educators need to verify that the opportunity aligns with the educational goals of the course/program, host organizations need to provide opportunities for meaningful and substantial contributions, and WIL students need to fully engage with the host organization to make the experience valuable for both themselves and the organization”
• A for assessment — “designed by the educator with input from the student and host organization”
• R for reflection — the educator must provide prompts “to facilitate reflection on the experience for the student and the host organization ensuring maximum learning gains from the experience”

McRae, Pretti and Church (2019: 4-5) cites the Canadian national association for Co-operative and Work-Integrated Learning (CEWIL) definition of work-integrated learning (WIL), namely “a model and process of curricular experiential education which formally and intentionally integrates a student’s academic studies within a workplace or practice setting. WIL experiences include an engaged partnership of at least: an academic institution, a host organization, and a student. WIL can occur at the course or program level and includes the development of learning outcomes related to employability, personal agency, and life-long learning”. They further differentiate nine different models or forms of curricular WIL that exist in many post-secondary institutional contexts, namely:

• Apprenticeship
• Co-operative Education (co-op alternating and co-op internship models)
• Internship
• Entrepreneurship
• Service Learning
• Applied Research Projects
• Mandatory Professional Practicum/Clinical Placement
• Field Placement
• Work Experience

McRae, Pretti and Church (2019: 17) conclude that a quality framework for work-integrated learning is a critical, because each stakeholder has finite resources that they can be directed towards WIL, and each need to be intentional in how to allocate available resources. Many stakeholders support the positive outcomes of WIL in higher education as well as expansion, however, the outcomes are not guaranteed. Quality must remain in focus. McRae, Pretti and Church (2019: 17) suggest that through articulating the aims; accomplishing the actions; assessing the achievements of the primary stakeholders; and by using the acquired information it is possible to set a continuous improvement process in motion through quality can be assured.

References

Council on Higher Education. 2014. Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Programme Accreditation Criteria (pp 81-107), in Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide — Criterion 15, p. 104. Electronically accessible from http://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/CHE%20-%20Distance%20Higher%20Education.pdf

Freestone, R., Williams, P., Thompson, S. & Trembath, K. 2007. A quantitative approach to assessment of work-based learning outcomes: an urban planning application. Higher Education Research & Development, 26(4), December, 347–361. Electronically accessible from https://tandfonline.com/toc/cher20/26/4?nav=tocList

McRae, N.T., Pretti, J. & Church, D. 2019. Work-Integrated Learning Quality Framework. University of Waterloo, Waterloo Centre for the Advancement of Co-operative Education (WatCACE), Electronically accessible from https://uwaterloo.ca/centre-advancement-co-operative-education/research-publications/wil-quality-framework

Smith, C. 2012. Evaluating the quality of work-integrated learning curricula: a comprehensive framework. Higher Education Research & Development, 31(2), 247–262. Electronically accessible from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07294360.2011.558072

Aspects of certain experiential learning equates to adventure education

In searching for literature about the various manifestations and best practices of the broad notion of experiential learning, the notions of experiential education and adventure education emerged. The Journal of Experiential Education (JEE) is a peer-reviewed, scholarly journal, which publishes articles in a diverse range of in subject areas including, but not limited to, environmental education, service learning, outdoor adventure programming, therapeutic applications, research and theory, the creative arts, and much more. Related to adventure education is mindful place-based education, which Deringer (2017, p. 334) says is about experiencing “place more deeply through incorporating the practice of mindfulness”. Mindfulness entails non-judgmental focusing of one's awareness on the present moment. 

Pouty (2007, p. 4) defines adventure education “as direct, active, and engaging learning experiences that involve the whole person and have consequences”, and cites (p. 12) the Kraft and Sakofs (1988) definition for experiential education; which in addition to the first sentence includes: “Students make discoveries and experiment with knowledge themselves instead of hearing or reading about the experiences, thus developing new skills, new attitudes, and new theories or ways of thinking.” Pouty (2007, p. 5) points out that only “20 percent of the population can learn well in a setting where reading and writing are the dominant pedagogy and skill sets” and argues further in favour of adventure education as ideal means towards instilling the following essential competencies required by contemporary workplaces:

• Collaborative teamwork (leveraging the skills of multiple others is a necessity to learn and produce)
• Creative problem solving and product development
• Communication with passion and skill to influence others
• A sense of ethics and corporate responsibility for greater community

Panicucci (2007, p. 44) outlines the importance of adhering to the adventure wave, a metaphor for the three essential components illustrated below, namely (a) the briefing—framing thereof or an introduction thereto; (b) the doing—immersing in the actual experience or event, the crest or climax; and (c) debriefing—reflection time after the wave passed.

The benefits of a simulated learning experience can be optimised by directly frontloading during briefing. Gass and Stevens (2007, p. 105) explain that “Frontloading refers to specifically highlighting the learning that is to take place before, or in front of” it happening. The briefing would include clarifying the objectives; motivating what might be derivable from the anticipated experience; indicating what behaviours and actions would enhance or contribute (function) to bigger success; but also what may hinder (dysfunction) accomplishments. Indirect frontloading is more subtle, the making of suggestions, giving of tips, or offering alternatives/options. In some instances direct frontloading could be detrimental in that participants become obsessed with task completion, rather than deriving the learning benefits.

The debriefing part of the adventure wave can be enhanced by funnelling, in which a group is guided through a serious of six stags or filters (Gass & Stevens, 2007: pp. 112-114). Imagine a funnel with the narrow end pointing downward, as illustrated (from p. 113) below. The experience is ‘poured’ into the wide end, and then filtered through a series of six sequenced questions. The six steps are an expanded version of Borton’s (1970) ‘three basic [human] information processing [(HIP)] functions’, namely “experience (Sensing), sense-making (Transforming) and engagement with the world (Acting)” says Rolfe (2014, p. 488). Self-knowledge, Borton (1970, p. 93) argued, “is as difficult to obtain as it is powerful, and usually has been won by relatively few people” and advanced the ‘What’ (increasing awareness), ‘So What’ (evaluating intention), and ‘Now What” (experimenting with new behaviour) as process education model and means to the end of self-knowledge. These debriefing filters, steps or stages could be facilitated either in a face-to-face setting or on-line through a learning management system. The six steps, stages or filters are:

• What? — Filters #0 entails review, and #1 recall and remember
  • Filter #0 refocuses the attention on the subject of interest, clarifying exactly what the topic of the debriefing is
  • Filter #1 entails participants describing what they experienced, recalling the detail and supplementing each other’s recollections/stories
• So What? — Filters #2 affect and effect, and #3 summation
  • Filter #2 addresses emotions and causes; how participants felt and impact of the event on them personally
  • Filter #3 moving of the reflection focus to what has been learned from participation, which ideally should mirror the learning objectives
• Now What? — Filters #4 application, and #5 commitment
  • Filter #4 entails facilitation of learning transfer, or the making of connections to real life applications
  • Filter #5 cements the value derived from participation by facilitating commitment

Borton, T. (1970). Applying the process approach, chapter 8, pp. 93-105. In Reach Touch and Teach: Student Concerns and Process Education. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Deringer, S.A. (2017). Mindful Place-Based Education: Mapping the Literature. Journal of Experiential Education, Vol. 40(4) 333–348. Electronically accessible from https://doi.org/10.1177/1053825917716694

Gass, M.A. & Stevens, C.A. (2007). Facilitating the adventure process, pp. 101-123. In Pouty, D.; Panicucci, J. & Collinson, R. (Eds). (2007). Adventure education: theory and applications. Campaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Journal of Experiential Education (JEE). Electronically accessible at http://journals.sagepub.com/home/jee

Pouty, D. (2007). Introduction to adventure education, pp. 3-17. In Pouty, D.; Panicucci, J. & Collinson, R. (Eds). (2007). Adventure education: theory and applications. Campaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Pouty, D.; Panicucci, J. & Collinson, R. (Eds). (2007). Adventure education: theory and applications. Campaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Panicucci, J. (2007). Cornerstones of adventure education, pp. 33-48. In Pouty, D.; Panicucci, J. & Collinson, R. (Eds). (2007). Adventure education: theory and applications. Campaign, IL: Human Kinetics.