Learning in vivo

Tweets enrich learning from work

Tweet-sharing presents a potentially powerful means of spreading learning derived from work experiences for students during prerequisite in vivo learning; for members of a community of practice; for participants in a learning through work programme; etc. Download Academic tweeting to learn MG29Jan-4Feb2010 What do readers of this post think of the idea? Could tweets and re-tweets become the material for reflective practice?

Collective work-based learning

Raelin (2000: 66-100) discusses three kinds of collective work-based learning, namely:

• Action Learning
• Community of Practice
• Action Science

Action Learning

It is an educational strategy that entails groups seeking to derive learning from real-time (in vivo) problem solving. In about 1975, after conversion to adult membership of my congregation I engaged in entry-level instruction of catechumens. At the time the notion of learning by doing got impressed upon my mind. In trying to bring about learning, I have subsequently always tried to build in activity in learning facilitation. Raelin (2000: 66-7) remarks that such activities are useful; but neither sufficient to enable conversion of theory into tacit knowledge; nor for participants/delegates to challenge and reflect on their own theoretical assumptions. Only if people take real positions; are obliged to make moral judgements and required to defend those under pressure do real learning occur. Action learning teams present itself as a means to introduce work-based learning into a work environment.

Community of Practice

Raelin (2000: 75) asserts that "communities of practice evolve as people united in a common enterprise develop a shared history as well as particular values, beliefs, ways of talking, and ways of doing things". Membership is spontaneous and through involvement with one another—mutual engagement—in the process of pursuing the same practice. Problem solving together becomes (as a community) becomes a natural social activity and meanings are informally negotiated. Often knowledge creation is tacit and practices become interpersonally instinctive. A "shared repertoire, including routines, words, tools, ways of doing things, stories, gestures, concepts, and the like that symbolize their shared practice" (Raelin 2000: 76)emerges. Members of a community of practice often serve as gate keepers with regard to the practice.

Raelin (2000: 78) observes that facilitation might accelerate the process toward the emergence of a community of practice, but he expresses reservation if an organisation as a whole could become a community of practice—there are just too many barriers and politics. He discusses the use of Future Search (pp 24-25 of PsychDigest Vol 1 No 3; Download FutureSearch_AfronautHigherEducationlaunchpad-posternarrative) technology (p. 83), Open Space Technology (p. 84) and Virtual Team Learning (p. 85), but cautions about the latter that nobody has yet "invented a technology that replaces a pitcher of beer".

Action Science

When I saw this heading I have been most intrigued. Raelin (2000: 89) defines action science as "a work-based intervention strategy for helping learners increase their effectiveness is social situations through heightened awareness of their action and interaction assumptions". It is a form of 'double-loop' learning derived from becoming aware of a mismatch between your values and your actions and an internal commitment to embracing new or other. The term reflection-in-action—described as rethinking to discover how and what that has been done contributed to the expected or unexpected outcome—is preferred by some, e.g. Donald Schön (p. 90). A member of a community of practice would typically offer a frame of the situation a hand. The members collectively would then reflect upon the frame/s and start testing the underlying assumptions and reasoning processes that surface. The aim is to narrow the inconsistencies between espoused (what is advocated) theories versus theories-in-use (actual practice).

Raelin (2000: 90) agrees with Habermas's views and points out three types of knowledge:

1. Technical knowledge entails "predictions about observable events, physical or social"; may result in empirical or theoretical discourse; and "relies upon hypothetico-deductive logic".
2. Practical knowledge involves "social norms, ideals, values, and moral decisions"; that in the absence of empirical tests rely on tradition and authority. However, consensus derived through dialogue is preferred and metaphors often used to resolve contradictions. Ideally, practical discourse searches for meaning rather than trying to outlining causality.
3. Emancipatory knowledge is gained through critical self-reflection about the taken-for-granted assumptions. The validity of premises for interpretation or understanding is tested through reflective discourse.

People are often socially conditioned—Model I behaviour—which is "characterised by a need to control, maximize winning, suppress emotions, and be rational" Raelin (2000: 91) with minimal learning, but reinforcement of existing socialisation. In contrast, Model II behaviour, "is based on directly observable data" at hand and entails exchange of viewpoints—resulting in increased learning and producing of intended end-results. The table below (based Raelin 2000: 94) on serves as illustration:

	Model I behaviour	Model II behaviour
Contextual cue or triggering condition	An elderly woman is curious about the use of SMSes	Another elderly person, similar age, notices how efficient SMS communication is
Underlying assumptions	Cellphones are complex, I would not master it.	Believe it is possible to master the use of the SMS function of a cellphone
Action strategies	Is shown by a user (grandchild) what an SMS is and how to go about creating a message, sending it, receiving it, retrieving it and responding	Ask a user to demonstrate how to go about creating a message, sending it, receiving it, retrieving it and responding. Make notes how to go about and try SMSing.
Consequences in the behavioural world for learning	Promptly forgets and ask again in future when observing fellow residents of the retirement facility receiving SMSes	Master the use of the SMSes and enjoy the benefit of keeping in touch with relatives and friends

Raelin, J.A. 2000. Work-based learning—the new frontier of management development. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Work-based learning model

Raelin (2000: 49-65) theorises about work-based learning firstly by comparing theory and practice modes of learning, there after explicit versus tacit forms of knowledge. He then builds a conceptual model by first looking at individual work-based learning, in terms of the two mentioned modes of learning and the two forms of knowledge:

	Explicit	Tacit
Theory:	Conceptualisation	Experimentation
Practice:	Reflection	Experience

He next turns to the organisation, as collective, and builds further on his model of work-based learning:

	Explicit	Tacit
Theory:	Applied science	Action learning
Practice:	Action science	Community of practice

Then he completes his pyramid-shape model (Raelin 2000: 64)

Raelin, J.A. 2000. Work-based learning—the new frontier of management development. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Transcending competence—learning to learn

If you wish to be vocationally successful you need to transcend knowledge, skills and competence and gain meta-competence, argues Raelin (2000: 11)—it is not particular skills that are important, but the ability to adapt knowledge, skills and competence to changing environments. Acquired knowledge does not represent a competitive advantage, because it becomes stale and require continuous renewal. A continuous self-reflective approach must be acquired.

Raelin (2000: 13) highlights three levels of learning:

1.    First-order or single-loop learning—when we advance beyond habitual actions/responses (zero-order learning) to trying out new methods (trial-and-error).

2.    Second-order or double-loop learning—when the standard/established meanings underlying our habitual responses are challenged and we start transferring learning from one context to a next.

3.    Third-order or triple-loop (p. 14) learning entail becoming aware that the way the world is perceived (our underlying assumptions) might be based on questionable premises, learning about the context-of-contexts.

Raelin (2000: 13) asserts that transfer of learning, without third-order learning, may limit us to practitioner actions relying on preconceived criteria for appropriate actions. This limits innovation. Third-order learning entails holding virtual reflective conversations with the situation within which functioning—readjusting practice to changing circumstances.

 

Raelin (2000:14) advocates all three kinds of work-based learning, but emphasise the third-order as most important. He further make a link to just-in-time learning, where the individual's needs and preferences is responded to and learning is of use in work, as well as related to one's thinking and feelings.

 

Raelin, J.A. 2000. Work-based learning—the new frontier of management development. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Make learning arise from changing work

The maxim of the inventor of action learning, Reg Rewans, rings true: "the rate of learning must equal or exceed the rate of change" (Raelin, 2000: 1).

Rate of learning ≥Rate of Change

Managers can no longer afford to continuously react to change; in order to compete successfully—urges Raelin (2000: 2)—managers must anticipate change and make time to reflect on actions. Raelin (2000: 1) calls the "need for continuous learning" the "sine qua non of organisational development"; learning has to become a way of conduct—part of the work ethic: "continuous reflection on actual experience" (p. 2).

Raelin, J.A. 2000. Work-based learning—the new frontier of management development. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Analysis of experiential narrative instead of portfolios

It has often been said that it is naive to assume that students would actually learn from an in vivo (real-life) setting what they need to—i.e. what has been specified in the curriculum. It is my experience that students do not necessary experience, despite prior arrangements, what they should from a work placement. This is because of various reasons, among others work pressures. Besides the learning environmental factors, the student's own attitude may also restrict the student's learning.

In vivo learning educators/coordinators/work-integrated learning lecturers have tried many ways to bring about the desired learning of students, for example:

• Conducting on-campus orientation prior to placement of students in the in vivo learning setting (going for experiential/work-integrated learning)
• Providing students with work-integrated learning guidelines, detailing the relevant learning outcomes students must achieve and specifying what evidence of learning is required (this is especially important in the case of distance education institutions), for example, what the portfolio of evidence or work-project report should include
• Providing mentors (the work-place learning supervisors) with guidelines detailing what the students should be exposed to, their roles a learning mentors and what evidence of learning is expected from students
• Monitoring the learning and progress of students during in vivo/work-integrated learning
• Facilitate debriefing (or reflection) of students on return from in vivo/work-integrated learning stints away from campus
• Providing students with log books (to capture their experience and have each entry ratified) or with journals to capture their learning
• Require of students to present their portfolios to a panel that would interrogate their mastery of the specified learning outcomes

What about making use of story-telling and narrative analysis?

The in vivo/work-integrated learning guide would include the learning outcomes to be accomplished and suggested in vivo (real-life) settings.

The guide would further include (a) examples of daily journaling and/or recording of experiences, observations and realisations; (b) some indicators about story telling; and (c) a narrative analysis model—such as Lieblich, Tuval-Mashiach and Zilber (1998)—with basic explanations.

The instruction would be simple:

1. when the student is of opinion that she/he has mastered the specified learning outcomes she/he must write or tell the story about the learning experiences. If told, the student must transcribe the audio recording to text and edit it for readability
2. to do an analysis of her/his own narrative/experience-story (making use of the model in the guide)
3. illustrate/explain/qualify by linking up the analysis of the narrative with the specified learning outcomes to substantiate why she/he is of opinion the outcomes were mastered/accomplished

What do blog readers think? Could such an approach work? If readers think not, why? What are the potential pitfalls?

Feedback from a friend:

"Hi, Thomas.

Taking a rather oblique look at the problem, I'd ask, "What is it about the situation that mitigates against the desired outcome?"  Assuming the student has been given all the essential input (as you've listed) he knows what is wanted of him.   OK.  He's probably in a real-life workplace for the first time; it's and entirely new and perhaps stressful experience.  He's encountering the sort of people, rules, procedures and environment he's never experienced before.  Pressures will be on him to perform a job.   He may be earning a salary for the first time - which will be a distraction.  It will be during what is normally a holiday period, and his friends may be on the beach, or whatever. -- Just some ideas, based on observation of "Vac Students" in the Chemical industry."

Four schools of action learning

Action learning has a history of more than 60 years of practice. During the late 1920s a group of research scientists "found that meeting to question their successes and failures, in a very deliberate and precise way, and then reflecting on them together, helped them to gain insights and act more appropriately" (Rimanoczy 2007:247). The various types of action learning were organised in 1999 (p. 248) into four schools:

1. The Tacit School entail that people learn incidentally from real problems while working.
2. The Scientific School follow Lewin's action research cycle but focus on learning.
3. The Experiential School base their learning process on Kolb's learning cycle, by starting with action, followed by reflection on the action and changes to future action.
4. The Critical Reflection School does what its name implies; the reflection deepens to explore beliefs and assumptions. [Action Reflection Learning falls within this school).

Two consistent elements were found across the four schools, namely:

• Working on real problems that are ambiguous.
• Participants meet to report progress and discuss problems.

Rimanoczy, I. 2007. Action learning and action reflection learning: are they different? Industrial and Commercial Training, 39(5), 246-256.

The ideal of work-integrated learning is gaining phronesis

"Gaining phronesis requires maturation, in Aristotle's thought:

“

Whereas young people become accomplished in geometry and mathematics, and wise within these limits, prudent young people do not seem to be found. The reason is that prudence is concerned with particulars as well as universals, and particulars become known from experience, but a young person lacks experience, since some length of time is needed to produce it (Nichomachean Ethics 1142 a).

”

Phronesis is concerned with particulars, because it is concerned with how to act in particular situations. One can learn the principles of action, but applying them in the real world, in situations one could not have foreseen, requires experience of the world. For example, if one knows that one should be honest, one might act in certain situations in ways that cause pain and offense; knowing how to apply honesty in balance with other considerations and in specific contexts requires experience.

Aristotle holds that having phronesis is both necessary and sufficient for being virtuous; because phronesis is practical"

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phronesis

Assessment of work-integrated learning

While Bates (2003) indicates that work placements are used in academic programmes to prepare professionals of a variety of fields, Brodie and Irving (2007) state that work-based learning (WBL) is increasingly regarded as valuable with regard to Higher Education’s role to produce graduates with employability skills. Bates (2003:303) found that a substantial body of literature address curriculum design and expected learning outcomes, but she did not find studies analysing “how students make sense” of the workplace experience. She argues that course designs, without the latter, might be the result of intuitions based on ‘good teaching’ principles, but do not test the efficacy of workplace learning. Stasz and Brewer (in Bates 2003) observe that most literature on work or field placements focus on procedural aspects, rather than the accomplishments of students undergoing the WBL.

 

Baxter-Magolda (in Bates 2003) uses the term ‘self-authorship’ for the process that takes place as students incorporate their newfound learnings into their self-concept—“students construct knowledge as they construct ideas [that] they form about themselves” (p. 322). The WBL journals of students indicate that significant things happen unpredictably during WBL and that each placement entails different challenges. Bates (2003) therefore argues that specific behavioural objectives cannot be specified in advance, because the moments of challenge cannot be predicted. Raths (in Bates 2003) states that the WBL curriculum aught to be based on propositions about learning rather than specifically prescribed objectives.

 

Bates (2003) argues that the personal and emotional content [what Burnard (1996) calls experiential knowledge, visit http://psychsoma.co.za/learning_in_vivo/2008/08/experiential-pr.html] of the journals of students are just as important in assessment as the propositional knowledge documented. She reasons from the adult learning body of literature; mentions Biggs’ four principles of a person’s life-centred orientation to learn; as well as Boud, Cohen and Walker’s five propositions that assists in the understanding the learning that occurs from experiences. Bates (2003) concludes that irrespective of which partitioning is used, they should not be regarded as distinct categories, but rather as components of a process that entails deep learning. She presents the taxonomy of ‘symptoms of learning’ (p. 307) outlined in Table 1.

 

Table 1: The Bates (2003) Taxonomy of Symptoms of Learning

Category: The journal should provide evidence that the …	Criteria of evidence about journal content
1.    work placement experience has been the foundation of and the stimulus for learning	1.1      Selecting the learning task 1.2      Intrinsic motivation 1.3      Constructing meaning
2.    learner has actively constructed the work placement experience as it has evolved	2.1      Modifying the learning task 2.2      Making connections and changing focus 2.3      Collaboration and the construction of knowledge
3.    work placement learning has been a holistic experience	3.1      The student’s relationship to experiences 3.2      Adaptation and introspection by the student 3.3      Understanding the task 3.4      Understanding others
4.    work placement learning has been socially and culturally constructed during the course of the experience	4.1      The social construction of meaning 4.2      Critical self-reflection
5.    work placement learning has been influenced by the socio-emotional context in which it has occurred	5.1      Awareness of the feelings of both self and others and preparedness to explore these 5.2      Understanding how the feelings of both self and others impact on the task at hand 5.3      Willingness to modify and then engage in the task in order to accommodate socio-emotional experiences

 

Bates (2003) asserts that learning is continual; that understanding often occurs some time after the initial experience; that experiences build incrementally—each experience influenced by its own social and cultural context; and that understanding can be transformed or occur as a critical insight. Fundamental to Baxter-Magolda’s concept ‘self-authorship’—for the process of learning about ‘self in the world—is self-reflection, which results in organising thoughts and feelings and to form opinions and decisions. “All learning is ultimately learning about the self” (Bates 2003:322) and “[w]ithout the opportunity to continue building self-confidence and self-esteem there is little to no learning” (p. 323). There is an abundance of literature that emphasises the need for confidence in one’s ability to fulfil commitments; and that when people are willing to confront their anxieties and prepared to take risks the learning derived can be profound. Bates concludes that the feedback given about reflective journals plays a crucial role in confirming the learning process.

 

 

Bates, M. (2003) The assessment of work integrated learning: symptoms of personal change. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 14(2), 303-326.

Brodie, P. & Irving, K. (2007) Assessment in work-based learning: investigating a pedagogical approach to enhance student learning. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 32(1), 11-19.

Burnard, P. (1996) Acquiring interpersonal skills - a handbook of experiential learning for health professionals. 2nd edition. London: Chapman & Hall.

Capacitating work-based/integrated learning

Brodie and Irving (2007) observe that a rigorous pedagogy to underpin work-based learning (WBL) is still embryonic. They present a triangular (not the overused institute-employer-student three-way relationship) model of WBL-pedagogy, illustrated in figure 1, that has been developed based on the University of Chester’s more than 20 years of experience in supporting and assessing WBL. The model captures the inter-dependency that needs to be present, namely that students understand learning; critical reflection ability of students; and that students grasp their own acquired capabilities.

 

 

Brodie and Irving (2007) point out that WBL is increasingly regarded as valuable with regard to Higher Education’s role to produce graduates with employability skills. Workplaces as sites of learning, with their own curriculum, were only comparatively recently explored. The capabilities that graduates need when entering employment are similar to those of existing labour, namely to adapt to constant change and the demands of increasing complexity.

 

The triangular WBL pedagogical model rests on two important accepted pedagogical views: the constructivist theory and the recognition of communities of practice. The first theory proposes that people construct their own meaning within their specific situational context. The latter recognises socialisation of a person into a fraternity or a segment thereof in a socially constructed context. Neither, theory dwells on the role of the lecturer. Instead, a pragmatic view is taken regarding what the graduate need to know and be able to do when they engage—a student centred approach of WBL. The focus is on what will enable students. Within the open distance learning (ODL) context, the work-integrated learning (WIL) material needs to ensure that students master:

·         What learning is (that it implies change) and how each do it most effectively (the preferred style/s and approach of each—fitness for purpose)

·         How to recognise that they have learnt (reflective ability and reflection about own learning)

·         What informed their learning (the validity or justification of what they learnt—i.e. if it stands up to scrutiny against accepted evidence; reflexive ability)

·         What they still need to learn (recognise future learning needs through critical reflection)

·         What they know more about, became more able to do—what they have learnt (recognise and demonstrate the capabilities acquired; analysis and evaluation of the evidence)

It should be obvious that there is an interdependence and inter-relationship between the three corners of the triangular model. The role of lecturers is to capacitate students.

 

Higher Education is often associated with crediting higher level thinking and a devaluation of ‘doing’ capabilities acquired through WBL. However, students need to recognise, articulate and measure (assess) their own learning. The assessment of capability is probably the most important corner of the triangular WBL pedagogical model. There is interdependency with regard to the assessment of acquired learning.

 

Brodie, P. & Irving, K. (2007) Assessment in work-based learning: investigating a pedagogical approach to enhance student learning. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 32(1), 11-19.

Afterthought and mirroring - reflexivity

Reflection and reflexivity (pp 46-47, 92-94)

— notes from Illeris, K. 2002. The three dimensions of learning. Malabar, Fla: Krieger

There are two dissimilar meanings are associated with the word ‘reflection’:

1.       Afterthought — reflecting on or giving additional though to something

2.       Mirroring — in line with the original optical meaning, an experience of something mirrored in the self. The significance thereof is in the focus and that the personal identity is used as yardstick. The term self-reflection is often used in this sense. The inclination or ability to this kind of reflection is also termed reflexivity, however, accurate vocabulary is lacking.

Afterthought and cognitive learning

The words afterthought and reflection contains an element of time lag, in that new impulses that arise from interaction often do not happen directly. Although immediate learning is possible, the time lag is a characteristic. Often a cognitive dissonance remains and when an opportune moment takes place, afterthought occurs. Jack Mezzirow equated this kind of reflection to the learning in one situation and applied in another. Karl Duncker indicated that afterthought often manifests as problem solving, stemming from the original interaction. There is accommodative learning that lags behind the trigger impulses and is elaborated on later. Mezzirow contributed critical-reflection, which contains an added element of assessment of the soundness of the presumptions.

Reflection-in-action, developed by Donald Schön, is not considered to form part of afterthought, as form of learning, because Schön advocated reflection-in-action as a process of immediate reaction to a problem.

Self-experience and reflexivity

Thomas Ziehe and Anthony Giddens postulate that reflexivity is not merely intellectual, but involves the experiential, the emotional, the self-comprehension and the identity formation. Giddens introduced the expressions reflexivity of the body (body awareness); institutional reflexivity (organisations constantly needing to legitimatise their existence and function) and reflexivity of modernity (a characteristic of the time). Ulrich Beck supported the latter with the term reflexivity of modernization, for individual and societal reflexivity as a necessity.

Reflexivity is not just principally about learning and thinking, but also linked to personality and personal qualities development. Development of the self is seen as mirroring the development of the individual in relationship to society.

Promoting the notion of cross-pollinating theories and practice

It has been an enriching experience to have attended the Unisa Teacher Education at a Distance conference the past week. Attached (Download Dr_T_Groenewald-Quality_in_vivo_learning.ppt) please find my personal presentation at the conference.

A number of issues stood out to me, worth capturing for further exploration:

• Graduates enter work and are confronted by unscripted stuff, they often sink or swim. Curriculum design should contemplate the kinds of problems graduate are likely to be confronted with and concentrate on equipping students to deal with these.
• Indigenous knowledge should not be dismissed, there is much to learn; but should not be exploited either, without rewarding the knowledge carriers/holders fairly.
• We must be careful with what lens we approach things, there are many other viewpoint also!
• Learning in vivo should, like most learning, be staggered.
• Practice is merely an activity, whereas participation is about learning derived from active experience (Do not dismiss this idea as just playing with words).

There were many other inspiring ideas contained in presentations that are  specific to teacher education. One such idea is the process of lesson study: teachers gather to critique a teacher's lecture and all learn from it. The emphasis here is on continued professional development. It certainly has application possibilities in many other occupational/professional fields. The idea of subjecting yourself, your practice to scrutiny of other; as well as partaking in constructive critique of peers. 

Waterfall

People learn incredibly much from their daily living because often they pursue the things they are interested in. The things fit their goals, which is an important condition for learning. It is essential to set the stage.

Because of pursuing interests (or obligations) people try out things. Some attempts succeed, others fail, which result in questions. The questions lead to introspection, pondering, asking other, consulting sources (e.g. a Google search). The question in turn readies the mind for the answer. If answers are made available without the need to match a question, the answers often go wasted.

This three-step learning waterfall is illustrated below. In natural learning, people wonder about their experiences, they draw conclusions. This process bring about indices. Future learning is either allocated to an existing category or a new category indexed.

In research the central research question or hypothesis is the crux of a study. Once the question is clarified and delimited, then the research is focused. A colleague at Unisa, Paul Prinsloo, once shared the following story (Download a_story_about_the_power_of_questions.doc) about the power of questions 

The art of accomplishing the desired outcome from in vivo learning is in formulating the correct questions students need to find answers for.

Schank, R.C. & Cleary, C. 1995. Engines for education. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Learning from mistakes

Disproving a hypothesis is as valid a research outcome as proving a hypothesis, yet the latter is preferred?

People learn from mistakes and failures. People label experiences in terms of the outcomes. When humiliating, negative or frustrating there is a natural tendency to want to avoid a recurrence. There is a learning cycle at work, whereas when the outcome matches the expectation people just continue behaving the same way.

The unfortunate experiences serve as future behaviour guideline, or case-based reasoning, in order derive a more fortunate outcome. Reflecting on negative memories may serve as a powerful means of learning.

The saying "a mule only bumps his head once" has a lot of merit.

Monitoring of in vivo learning

Effective assessment design and development — Unit 3 of the Unisa online assessor training programme for lecturers, emphasises that assessment should be well planned and suggests that assessment guidelines should include the following:

• how the assessment should be conducted
• resources required
• conditions of assessment
• time-limits or deadlines
• how the assessment instruments should be used
• guidelines for mark allocation
• guidelines for using the assessment tool (rubric, checklist, etc)
• how results should be recorded and administered
• how feedback should be given
• time frames for returning marked assessments and feedback
• any other information that assessors need to know

A pilot project, of formalised monitoring of work-integrated learning, is currently been undertaken for four qualifications. The guidelines (Download Guidelines_to_Monitors_-_generic.pdf) for the monitors of work-integrated leaning includes:

• Introduction
• The imperative context Resources required
• How to conduct the monitoring
• Conditions of assessment
• Time constraints and time frame for returning the monitoring report
• How to use the progress assessment instrument
• Feedback to the student and her (his) workplace supervisor (mentor)
• Observations about developments in the field that might in future influence the work-integrated/in vivo learning of the qualification
• Contribute to improving Unisa’s monitoring process

The monitoring instrument (Download Generic_WIL_progress_assessment_instrument.pdf) includes:

• Name of the monitor
• Details of the student
• Details of the student's WIL host/site
• Synopsis of the student's comments about in vivo learning
• Record of progress (exposure areas, projects, portfolio of evidence elements and practica certificates)
• Details of mentor/workplace supervisor
• Summaries of various parts of the formative assessment session
• Monitor's reflection on the session

The thinking behind the design of the instrument is (a) data collection - 1st six bullets above, followed by (b) thoughtful recording, which prepares the monitor for reflexivity (see other post in this regard). The idea is to use the latter for action research purposes.

Importance of mastering the "High Five"

A group of Career Development experts succinctly captured what career management is about:

1. Change is constant due to the fluidity and complexity
2. Follow your heart - your values, entrenched believes and interests drives you
3. Focus on the journey - The constant changes undermines and distracts, one therefore need to focus and enjoy the process/journey.
4. Stay learning - realise that most learning is not in formal settings, but in vivo day-to day. It is therefore important to become a self-directed learner and to develop a bank of evidence of your learning: this can be done by identifying your learning, recording/capturing it and to organise it. It is important to master reflecting, recording and action planning - especially to focus (3) on following your heart (2)
5. Be an ally - suggest a community, such as in a community of practise.

References:

Butter P, Davidson D, Day B, Gitterman A, Hackett H, Lamb T, McCormick J, Redekopp D, Robb M, Ross B, Tocher M (1995) - http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_pric/is_199500/ai_763126153/pg_1

Kenworthy-U'ren, A. 2008. Service-learning and career development learning: a synergistic coupling. In the Australian Learning & Teaching Council symposium pre-reading - http://www.usq.edu.au/resources/nagcasaltcsymposiumprereading120608.pdf

A pathway for work-, career- and future/life readiness

A Symposium held in Melbourne, 19 June 2008, aimed to share findings from research conducted in order to characterise best practice in the integration of career development learning into work integrated learning in Australian universities (visit http://www.usq.edu.au/nagcascarrickproject/symposium/default.htm for more information).

Career Development Learning is defined as an "overarching term pertaining to deliberate activities that go toward the improvement of an individual’s career. Career development can be conceived of as a professional activity performed by Career Development Practitioners and alike; it can also be conceived of as a subjective experience-in-process of developing one’s career" (p. 8 of the symposium pre-reading by Belinda McLennan, PVC Teaching and Learning Victoria University).

In the newly formed comprehensive universities, I imagine, there is often different perspectives between colleagues from the former academic university and from the former technikons in South Africa (now universities of technology) about the role of universities to prepare graduates for work readiness. I agree with a comment in the pre-reading that there is a fine balance between the needs of (a) commerce, industry, government and communities and (b) the university's role.

The pre-reading emphasise that Australian universities strengthened their commitment to blending academic learning and workplace experience, which is recognised as a unique and valuable learning environment/site. I quite like the notion of Learning in the workplace and/or Community (LiWC). It expands the potential learning sites to service learning. The pre-reading regards work-integrated learning (WIL) as an overarching/generic term to include career l;earning, engaged learning, internships, practica, clinical service, service learning, field work, cadetship, workplace projects, workplace research, sandwich years, etc. (I do not agree with the inclusion of cooperative learning, which is about learning in groups. Group learning can be used very well in reflecting about individual WIL to enhance learning.)

Three important and integrated readiness dimensions are highlighted:

• Work ready: Graduates moving seamlessly into employment ('hit the workplace running' - an ideal of the universities of technology) with employability skills, knowledge and experience; with the required graduate attributes needed by the occupational field; lifting productivity and addressing skills and labour shortages.
• Career Ready: Graduates have transferable skills and knowledge to manage their way through a changing world with intensified global competition, that is unpredictable and pluralistic; able to re-learn and re-inventing themselves (lifelong learning) as their careers proceed and develop.
• Future/life ready: Graduates have the skills and capabilities to continue to learn and contribute, as well as being adaptable as citizens of a changing world with new challenges.

I personally have a problem with an over emphasis of generic graduate attributes (critical cross-field outcomes in the South African contexts) as the be all and end all of in vivo learning. Yes, I agree that the workplace is an ideal environment to accomplish some or most of the critical cross-field outcomes. However, the occupational knowledge and skills that are best acquired through active engagement in real-life (in vivo) settings, are a very important aspect of the curriculum. The in vivo learning must be structured, properly guided, mentored and assessed to ensure graduate readiness. However, this further implies that for in vivo learning to succeed universities must have many partnerships to provide the necessary learning sites (environments) for the required learning to take place. These partners must be involved in the design, the planning and the delivery of the in vivo learning, and must be committed to the learning of students. Without such partnerships a university will struggle to offer the blended learning qualification/s.

Learning logs, thinking processes and metacognition

The following questions (source: http://olc.spsd.sk.ca/DE/PD/instr/strats/logs/index.html), are advocated as useful “to guide students in making thoughtful entries in their learning logs” (emphasis added:

·        What did I do in class today?

·        What did I learn?

·        What did I find interesting?

·        What questions do I have about what I learned?

·        What was the point of today's lesson?

·        What connections did I make to previous ideas of lessons?

The following pro forma learning log sheet appear to have much potential  (source: http://www.ssdd.bcu.ac.uk/learner/Study%20Skills%20Guides/12%20Learning%20logs.htm) for the use of work-integrated learning:

Marilyn Joyce (http://www.maslibraries.org/infolit/samplers/spring/doub.html) states:

How can we challenge our students to exercise their minds? One answer is the double-entry journal and learning log. Educators can use double-entry journals and learning logs to drive students' thinking processes. Journals and learning logs are also excellent vehicles for assessing student progress because they provide insight into what students are learning and reveal the development of their thoughts.

There are many shapes and forms of double-entry learning logs. There is room for immediate reaction and for reaction after reflection. Librarians have adapted these techniques for teaching information skills. Marilyn Joyce help students that struggle with reflexivity ease into the process with a list of possible responses:

·        a paraphrase of a complex segment of text

·        a possible explanation of a confusing material

·        a main idea from the resource and why it is important

·        a strong positive or negative reaction and an explanation of that reaction

·        a reason for agreeing or disagreeing with the author/producer

·        a comparison and/or contrast of a passage with another resource or with prior knowledge

·        a prediction based on evidence from the resource

·        a question generated as a result of reading, viewing, or hearing the resource

·        a description of a personal experience that relates to the resource

Such learning log entries are likely to increase metacognition in that students become more aware of their own thought processes.

Reflexive competence and reflection

Vast volumes of South African educational documents highlight the following four competencies (paraphrased from http://www.citehr.com/14370-competency-mapping-urgent.html) of which two mention reflexive/reflexivity:

1.      Practical competency             A person's demonstrated ability to perform a specified set of tasks.

2.      Foundational competence    A person's demonstrated understanding of what and why she (he) is doing.

3.      Reflexive competence       A person's ability to integrate actions with the understanding of the action so that she (he) learn from those actions and adapts to the changes as and when they are required.

4.      Applied competence              A person's demonstrated ability to perform a set of tasks with understanding and reflexivity.

In this regard I found the Peter Jarvis’ (Source: http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-explrn.htm) model, which illustrates several different potential responses/routes to a potential learning situation. The routes are summarised in terms of grades of learning in a table below.

Donald Clark (http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/development/reflection.html) highlights four types of writing; the first one is non-reflective, while the other three are characterized as different kinds of reflection:

·        Descriptive writing (not reflective) reports events. Its main purpose is to provide a support or a starting point for the framework.

·        Descriptive reflection attempts to provide reasons based upon personal judgment, e.g., "I choose this problem solving activity because I believe the learners should be active rather than passive."

·        Dialogic reflection forms a discourse with one's self through the exploration of possible reasons. e.g., "I became aware that a number of students did not respond to written text materials. Thinking about this, there may have been several reasons. A number of students may still have lacked some confidence in handling the level of language in the text. "

·        Critical reflection involves giving reasons for decisions or events, which takes into account the broader historical, social and/or political contexts.

From simulation to action learning and reflection

Malick and Stumph (1998) distinguish between synthetic and natural experiential learning. The first they define “as learning that takes place when the action is in a venue constructed for the learning experience” and may include “cases, games, exercises and other experiences” (p. 25) that are planed and directed to provide practice, illustrate or give insight, or to apply learning. The work place where the learning will be used is a primary natural experiential learning venue. Malick and Stumpf point out that not only is the cost of natural experiential learning higher, but also is it unrealistic to expect certain aspects of learning to occur naturally. However, Mintzberg placed simulations and cases at the bottom of a scale (see figure below) of learning ‘authenticity’ and work-based action learning and reflection at the top (Mintzberg, 2005 in Gardner, Blevins and Taylor, 2006, p. 2).

Gardner, S., Blevins, A. & Taylor, T. 2006. Co-creating professional knowledge through learning partnerships: The WA Police-Edith Cowan University, ASPIRE Officer Development Program. Paper delivered at the Teaching and Learning Forum, 1-2 February 2006, The University of Western Australia. Available on Internet at: http://lsn.curtin.edu.au/tlf/tlf2006/refereed/gardner.html

Mailick, S. & Stumpf, S.A. 1998. Learning theory in the practice of management development. Westport, Connecticut: Quurum.