Learning in vivo

A conceptual framework for a self-regulated internship model

Roy and Sykes (2017: 7-13) adapted the Zopiatis & Constanti’s (2012) conceptual framework, image immediately below, into a tabular-format, starting with the planning stage, and extended it for the virtual environment.

Zopiatis & Constanti’s (2012)

The Roy and Sykes (2017) conceptual framework for a self-regulated internship model, comprising four-tables, is summarised in the four quadrant table below.

1. Plan ·         Curriculum design, internship specific learning objectives, learning materials ·         Undertaking of mutual commitment signed ·         Role clarification, clear job description, mentoring/supervision, oversight/coor-dination and on-boarding ·         Host organisation policies and procedures ·         Quality assurance measures, standards and evaluation ·         Pre-internship seminar

2. Engage — The virtual Internship ·         Experience diary, activity logging, recording, reflective journaling and tracking ·         On site orientation, training, supervision ·         Assessment, by means of rubrics, of work and progress ·         Discussions and sharing through LMS ·         Feedback to guide the learning experience and intervention

4. Reflect and Reflect ·         Formal reflection, e.g. e-portfolio ·         Evaluation, rubric submission online by supervisor ·         Self-assessment by students ·         Reflective discussion ·         Building a virtual wall of wisdom ·         Stakeholder survey to improve programme

3. Assimilate ·         Interaction with the learning experience ·         Guidance to students through LMS ·         Connection of theory to practice by LMS ·         Online simulations and role-play opportunities ·         Dedicated discussion boards with guided questions ·         Collaboration, cooperation and communication ·         Review of curriculum by stakeholders

The Roy and Sykes (2017: 10) framework includes a fifth table, namely the “student’s self-regulated component of the hospitality internship learning process”, which among others entail each student’s responsibility to secure one or more opportunities with host organisation for a (paid or unpaid)4 to 6-week internship, by requesting a chance to do a project. This may entail volunteering at a professional association conference; working part-time for free; or some innovative idea. Roy and Sykes (2017) further encourage conducting Internet searches for internships; perusing industry journals; attending career fairs; and establish and maintaining relationships with career services. They urge the demonstration of undeniable work ethic, drive, motivation, initiative, and commitment by students. The self-regulated model, they submit, encourages students to negotiate, build self-confidence, utilise critical thinking and develop personal goal setting. Roy and Sykes (2017) argue that within the virtual (or distance) education environment students are already self-regulated (SRL) or self-directed (SDL). While the theoretical backgrounds of SRL and SDL may differ, it results in the student ultimately being responsible for much of the learning process. With SRL, the task is set by the lecturer, whereas with SDL tasks are initiated by the student. With self-regulated learning within the distance environment, the student would be responsible for finding an organisation at which to conduct the activities, which constitutes the self-direction.

Roy and Sykes (2017) report (p. 2) that in “recent years, the literature is increasingly more focused on online internships and their value to students in different disciplines” and cite several authors. They found that the “general consensus is that learning the ins and outs of an industry virtually, using contemporary internship methods, strengthens the students’ expertise and better prepares them for future workplace environments”. They observe that literature reflects that students gain significant benefits from real-life experience irrespective if “an internship, an externship, community project, or field experience”. It is reported that employers say that the completion of a supervised and evaluated internship, or community-based project, would ensure that college graduates possess the needed knowledge and skills. Connecting students from a virtual academic programme with employer organisations, however, is challenging, which prompted Roy and Sykes (2017) to develop “a self-regulated internship model applicable to an online hospitality curriculum”.

Roy, J. & Sykes, D. 2017. A review of internship opportunities in online learning: building a new conceptual framework for a self-regulated internship in hospitality. International Journal of E‑Learning & Distance Education, 32(1). Electronically accessible from http://www.ijede.ca/index.php/jde/article/view/1027

Zopiatis A. & Constanti, P. 2012. Managing hospitality internship practices: A conceptual framework. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education, 24(1), 44-51. Electronically accessible from https://doi.org/10.1080/10963758.2012.10696661

A comprehensive framework for assuring the quality of work-integrated learning

Much emphasis is placed on the notion of ‘quality’, on quality assurance measures and initiatives, and on improvement plans (or frameworks), state McRae, Pretti and Church (2019: 1-2). Quality could be described as a desired end-state, a striving for excellence.

There are a number of frameworks of quality standards deemed relevant:

• Smith’s (2012) framework for evaluation of the work-integrated learning (WIL) curriculum proposes six measures of specific domains, namely authenticity, integrated learning support, alignment, supervisor access, and induction (or preparation processes)
• The Council on Higher Education (2014) criteria for the coordination of work-based learning programmes presented by distance higher education institutions.
• The McRae, Pretti and Church (2019) triple-A star (AAA★) framework below, comprising five main sections, namely (1) the foundation, concepts, terminology and five stakeholder groups (students, host organisations/employers, the educators, academic institutions, and governments—in each of the stakeholder groups there are potentially “advocates”, which are bodies representing the interests of and/or supporting the group); (2) the participation aims of each of the stakeholders; (3) the actions by each of the stakeholders that is critical for quality; (4) the expected achievements (or outcomes, impacts, measures, and key performance indicators) for each of the stakeholders; and (5) finally a synthesis of four sections, as well as an outline of a continuous improvement process.

Figure: Triple-A star (AAA★) framework (McRae, Pretti & Church, 2019: 1)

Whereas the Council on Higher Education (2014) reiterates the 2004 accreditation criteria; Smith (2012: 250) presents a new evaluation framework which structurally and conceptually divides the WIL curriculum into six domains or constructs:

1. Authenticity
2. Alignment of teaching and learning activities with integrative learning objectives (Align-TLA)
3. Alignment of assessment with integrative learning objectives (Align-Asst)
4. Integrated Learning Support (across the two university and workplace sites) (ILS)
5. Supervisor Access (Sup. Access)
6. Induction and Preparation Processes (IPP)

The Council on Higher Education (2014) furthermore persists with the use of the term work-based learning (and the coordination thereof), whereas Smith (2012: 250) asserts that authenticity “is at the heart of all workplace-situated learning”. Smith (2012: 247) asserts that work-integrated learning (WIL) entails students spending time “in professional, work or other practice settings relevant to their degrees of study and to their occupational futures”; but points out that “WIL is not the same as work experience or work-based learning, neither of which require students to specifically learn, apply or integrate canonical disciplinary knowledge”. Both physical authenticity (providing students with real work environments) and cognitive authenticity (where students personally engage in, encounter, and participate in meaningful and relevant learning within the specified disciplinary framework) of curricula are deemed important. The authenticity is assessed with regard to what extent the environment would expose students to the real work settings and to which students can observe, interact and respond to that particular context. Projects should be meaningful and consequential. Freestone, Williams, Thompson and Trembath (2007) illustrate the application of a variant of the Course Experience Questionnaire (CEQ), namely the Work Experience Questionnaire (WEQ), as measure of the workplace learning experiences of students. The WEQ had been designed to explore the perceptions of students about their learning environment. The WEQ requires students to respond on a conventional five-point scale, ranging from strong disagreement (1), through to strong agreement/concurrence (5), with the intermediate points not labelled. The dimensions of ‘clear goals’ and ‘support for learning’ have been found to correlate highly with student learning. The WEQ questionnaire consisting of 33 items (questions), with items bundled into scales, namely:

• Clear Goals Scale (3 items)
• Support for Learning Scale (5 items)
• Generic Skills Scale (5 items)
• Menial Tasks Scale (3 items)
• Overall Satisfaction (1 item)
• Ungrouped individual questions (7 items)
• Additional Generic Skills (9 items).

Conceptually, there is a substantial difference between what is deemed quality. Whereas the Council on Higher Education (2014) focusses on various elements of coordination; Smith (2012) focusses on what constitutes good teaching and learning. He (p. 248) argues that WIL “focuses attention on the integration of discipline learning and workplace practice or application”. Smith (2012: 251) advances the “notion of the constructive alignment of learning objectives with teaching and learning activities (TLAs) and assessments”. He alludes to the fact that during WIL placements students are not at their host universities, but at workplaces, and therefore urges curriculum design deliberately integrated support services in the delivery, in order to improve the individual learning by alleviating stress. This up with the management of pedagogical aspects through induction and preparing students, both pedagogically and practically. Smith (2012: 252) recognises that such present an extra burden on academics, which is compounded by the need for maintaining contact “between the academic convenor (or appropriate others – e.g. tutors) and students in situ” (notion of supervisor access).

McRae, Pretti and Church (2019: 7) assert that “WIL is a collaborative endeavour and the perspectives of multiple stakeholders need to be incorporated to ensure the quality of WIL outcomes” and elaborate that “each of these stakeholders has a connection to quality WIL as described by the key aspects identified by P.E.A.R.”:

• P for pedagogy — the curriculum needs to be designed “to allow students and host organizations to make the most of the experience and students need to engage with the curriculum”
• E for experience — “educators need to verify that the opportunity aligns with the educational goals of the course/program, host organizations need to provide opportunities for meaningful and substantial contributions, and WIL students need to fully engage with the host organization to make the experience valuable for both themselves and the organization”
• A for assessment — “designed by the educator with input from the student and host organization”
• R for reflection — the educator must provide prompts “to facilitate reflection on the experience for the student and the host organization ensuring maximum learning gains from the experience”

McRae, Pretti and Church (2019: 4-5) cites the Canadian national association for Co-operative and Work-Integrated Learning (CEWIL) definition of work-integrated learning (WIL), namely “a model and process of curricular experiential education which formally and intentionally integrates a student’s academic studies within a workplace or practice setting. WIL experiences include an engaged partnership of at least: an academic institution, a host organization, and a student. WIL can occur at the course or program level and includes the development of learning outcomes related to employability, personal agency, and life-long learning”. They further differentiate nine different models or forms of curricular WIL that exist in many post-secondary institutional contexts, namely:

• Apprenticeship
• Co-operative Education (co-op alternating and co-op internship models)
• Internship
• Entrepreneurship
• Service Learning
• Applied Research Projects
• Mandatory Professional Practicum/Clinical Placement
• Field Placement
• Work Experience

McRae, Pretti and Church (2019: 17) conclude that a quality framework for work-integrated learning is a critical, because each stakeholder has finite resources that they can be directed towards WIL, and each need to be intentional in how to allocate available resources. Many stakeholders support the positive outcomes of WIL in higher education as well as expansion, however, the outcomes are not guaranteed. Quality must remain in focus. McRae, Pretti and Church (2019: 17) suggest that through articulating the aims; accomplishing the actions; assessing the achievements of the primary stakeholders; and by using the acquired information it is possible to set a continuous improvement process in motion through quality can be assured.

References

Council on Higher Education. 2014. Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Programme Accreditation Criteria (pp 81-107), in Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide — Criterion 15, p. 104. Electronically accessible from http://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/CHE%20-%20Distance%20Higher%20Education.pdf

Freestone, R., Williams, P., Thompson, S. & Trembath, K. 2007. A quantitative approach to assessment of work-based learning outcomes: an urban planning application. Higher Education Research & Development, 26(4), December, 347–361. Electronically accessible from https://tandfonline.com/toc/cher20/26/4?nav=tocList

McRae, N.T., Pretti, J. & Church, D. 2019. Work-Integrated Learning Quality Framework. University of Waterloo, Waterloo Centre for the Advancement of Co-operative Education (WatCACE), Electronically accessible from https://uwaterloo.ca/centre-advancement-co-operative-education/research-publications/wil-quality-framework

Smith, C. 2012. Evaluating the quality of work-integrated learning curricula: a comprehensive framework. Higher Education Research & Development, 31(2), 247–262. Electronically accessible from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07294360.2011.558072

Underfunding of work-integrated learning, Catch-22?

Two investigations, a decade apart, report difficulty with regard to quantifying costs associated work-integrated/experiential learning. There appear to be an unfortunate Catch-22 situation at work, namely inadequacies due to resource constraints, which in turn result in under provision of resources making it difficult to conform. A Catch-22 is a paradoxical situation from which an institution cannot escape because of contradictions.

The findings of a ministerial committee of the South African Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET, 2014: 40) that investigated the funding of universities indicate that work-integrated learning is (a) not necessarily appropriately structured, (b) not necessarily properly supervised and (c) not necessarily adequately assessed.

The ministerial committee reports (DHET, 2014: 255)

In the research questionnaire, institutions were asked to provide examples of the extent of the under-funding of the WIL components. Hardly any of the examples that were provided included ‘hard evidence’ of the extent of the under-funding. Almost all of the universities indicated that they fund the shortfall from the institutional annual operating budget by means of cross-subsidisation. Some of the institutions make use of third-stream income to fund the WIL shortfall. The feedback provided by the universities was insufficient to allow the Committee to calculate the extent of the under-funding of the qualifications that have a credit-bearing component of any kind of WIL.

The picture that emerges from the questionnaire data is the dominant perception that WIL is either unfunded or under-funded. However, in the absence of information on the accreditation of these programmes as having WIL learning components, it is difficult to determine accurately which programmes are unfunded or under-funded. Equally, in the absence of this information, it is difficult to accurately estimate the extent of the underfunding of WIL for those programmes whose WIL component currently receives government subsidy. Consequently, the starting point for determining which programmes are funded or otherwise, and the extent of possible under-funding, should be the accreditation of these programmes by the HEQC.

A technical team appointed in August 2003 by the then minister of education to investigate and make recommendations found (Department of Education, 2003: 2) that the “capturing and reporting of FTE [full time equivalent] EL [experiential learning] students have been neglected”. Reasons given included “are 1) a vague national definition of EL, 2) EL students have never been used as input parameters in any formula to fund EL, 3) EL student data were never required to be audited, and 4) the Higher Education Management Information System (HEMIS) has no standardised way of reporting EL students.”

The technical team further reported (Department of Education, 2003: 8) that difficulty has been “experienced in standardising the layout of costs of EL at” institutions.

It appears there is a desperate need for State and Higher Education to convene a work session to clarify how work-integrated learning related costing data would be more accurate gathered and reported.

Department of Education (South Africa). 2004. Investigation into the state funding of experiential learning at higher education institutions, report of technical team—29 March 2004. Unpublished. Download EL Report funding proposals 29 March 2004

Department of Higher Education and Training (South Africa). 2014. Report of the Ministerial Committee for the Review of the Funding of Universities—October 2013. Pretoria: DHET. Electronically accessible from http://www.dhet.gov.za/Financial%20and%20Physical%20Planning/Report%20of%20the%20Ministerial%20Committee%20for%20the%20Review%20of%20the%20Funding%20of%20Universities.pdf

DHET = Department of Higher Education and Training

Accreditation Criteria for the WIL of Programmes in distance HE, in a Digital Era

Criteria for programme accreditation and for institutional audits were set by the South African Council on Higher Education (CHE) in 2004. These criteria were interpreted from a distance education perspective, in a digital era. The following criteria specifically apply to work-integrated/based learning:

Criterion 1 (iii): Programme Design (p. 86) should indicate how equivalence of learning provision across all sites/contexts will be ensured including, among others, work-integrated learning components.

Criterion 1 (vi): The characteristics and needs of professional and vocational education (p. 88), catered for in the design, namely:

• To promote the understanding of students about the specific occupation for which they are being trained
• Students to master the techniques and skills required for a specific profession or occupation
• Work-integrated learning (WIL) including, workplace-based learning and placement in a work-based environment, forms an integral part of the curriculum according to the HEQSF qualification type selected.
• There are appropriate ‘enabling mechanisms’ (e.g. placements in appropriate and proximate locations) for distance education students, and for the contexts in which they find places for work-integrated learning, where this is appropriate to the programme purpose, to ensure that ‘students master the techniques and skills required’
• There are documented procedures for the identification, training and monitoring/ support of workplace-based mentors as well as making provision for visits/interaction with supervisors appointed, trained and monitored by the institution.
• Institutions make clear how the above will be managed for a distributed student body and a diversity of contexts.

Criterion 15: Coordination of work-based/integrated learning (p. 104) is done effectively, including adequate infrastructure, effective communication, recording of progress made, monitoring and mentoring. These arrangements will likely be more complex in distance provision due to the more distributed nature of students and the geographic footprint of distance programmes which may even extend beyond national borders. Appropriate arrangements will be needed for placement, mentoring and supervision for a more distributed student body to ensure an equivalent learning experience across a wider range of contexts.

• (ii) Learning contracts or agreements are implemented through which the student, the higher education institution and the employer can negotiate, approve and assess the objectives and outcomes of the learning process. Various parties, i.e. the institution, students, mentors and employers, adhere to the contract or agreement on their roles and responsibilities.
• (iii) Regular and effective communication takes place between the institution, students, mentors and employers involved in work-based learning. Good working relations are maintained between the various parties involved.
• (iv) A system (both at the institution and at the place of employment) is in operation to record and monitor regularly and systematically the progress of the student’s learning experience in the workplace.
• (v) A mentoring system enables the student to recognise strengths and weaknesses in his/her work, to develop existing and new abilities, and to gain knowledge of work practices.

Council on Higher Education (CHE). 2014. Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Programme Accreditation Criteria, pp. 81-107 in Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide. Produced on behalf of the CHE by the South African Institute for Distance Education (Saide). Pretoria: CHE.

Work-based education/work-integrated learning (WBE/WIL)

South Africa's Minister of Higher Education and Training, Dr Bonginkosi Emmanuel Nzimande, signed 27 June 2014 the Policy for provision of distance education in South African universities in the context of an integrated post-school system, which got published 7 July 2014 in the Government Gazette No 37811, as Government Notice No 535.

Whereas the notions workplace learning and work-integrated learning each appears 13 times in the preceding White Paper; the term workplace learning has been replaced by work-based education (WBE); which appears as synonynm to work-integrated learning (WIL) at the end of the glossary of the said policy. 

The glossary defines (emphases added) work-based education/work-integrated learning (WBE/WIL) as:

a component of a learning programme that focuses on the application of theory in an authentic, work-based context. It addresses specific competences identified for the acquisition of a qualification which relate to the development of skills that will make the learner employable and will assist in developing his/her personal skills. Employer and professional bodies are involved in the assessment of experiential learning, together with academic staff. Distance methods may usefully be used in providing a structured WBE/WIL experience within a larger learning programme; the provision of WBE/WIL, and the need for placement, mentoring, support, supervision and assessment present particular challenges for large scale distributed distance education provision and require special attention in the planning, resourcing and monitoring of programmes offered in distance mode.

It appears as if the notions and explanation have been haphazardly thrown together in that work-based education could be considered a sub-discipline of eduction, concerned with methods of work-based learning and the facilitation of learning that is work-based. The definition disregards the notion education and start by stating WBE/WIL is component of a learning programme.

The definition makes provision for the use of distance methods to provide WBE/WIL, but in the same sentence specify placement, mentoring, support, supervision and assessment. What the definition does get right is that planning, resourcing and monitoring require special attention. However, in the South African higher education context the work-integrated learning part/s of manny curriculums do not get state subsidy. Instead, funding is to some extend channeled through the Sectoral Education and Training Authorities (SETAs).

Problem-based and project work model

The Aalborg University was founded in 1974 on a new educational model, the problem-based and project organized model (also known as problem-based project work model) reports Coffin (2011, 19). PBL—note that the acronym PBL is often used to indicate both problem-based and project-based learning—has been practised with variations the past four decades in the Danish educational system by Roskilde University and Aalborg University. The “Aalborg model varies in terms of [programme] themes and choices of project work, definition of a problem, relationship between courses and the project, methods of supervision, resources, and group size” state Coffin (2011, 19). Herewith an illustration of my interpretation:

Coffin (2011, 19) gives an “overview of the idea of how this AAU-PBL model works is that students work together in groups on their project, one project per semester, to analyse and define problems within the interdisciplinary or subject/ theme frame. Students furthermore are expected to submit a group project report and then participate in a joint examination, but obtaining individual marks. As for the core of learning principles for the Aalborg PBL model, the focus is upon the problem, the content, and the team (Graaff & Kolmos, 2003). In terms of time frame and learning management, in each semester students are expected to spend 50% of their time on the project (team dynamic) and spend another 50% on the traditional lectures. Each group has a group room as space for their study and has a supervisor to guide them through their project. In each semester, each program formulates a theme which covers a variation of problems and learning objectives; therefore, students’ projects and courses (lecture based) must comply with or relate to the theme of that particular semester. Students are expected to apply knowledge from course lectures in working on their project work.”

Coffin (2011, 17) remarks that PBL “has gained a reputation of producing students with comprehensive abilities” that are ready to face “the changing world in the globalization era”. PBL is generally regarded as a pedagogical strategy that integrates theoretical subject knowledge with practical skills. Coffin (2011, 18) remarks that PBL represents student-centred pedagogy that “promotes active learning and lifelong learning” based on constructivism learning theory. PBL is further “characterized by flexibility and diversity”. Coffin (2011, 18) cautions that when implementing PBL, there should be awareness “of the differences between PBL used at course level and at system level … what is called PBL curriculum” and emphasise that “four components of PBL must be aligned: PBL curriculum design, PBL tutorials, PBL compatible assessments, and philosophical principles underpining PBL”.

Coffin, P. 2011. Reflections on problem-based learning practice at Aalborg University, 17-30. In J. Davies, E. de Graaff, and A. Kolmos, (Eds.). 2011. PBL across the disciplines: research into best practice. Proceedings from the 3rd International Research Symposium on PBL 28-29 November 2011, Coventry University, UK. Denmark: Aalborg University Press.

Gazetted Terminology for Professional Nurse and Midwife Education and Training

The terminology for cooperative and work-integrated education within the South African nursing education and training sphere is worth noting. It is gazetted that the Minister of Health, after consultation of the South African Nursing Council (SANC)—a statutory body—in accordance to §58(1)(f) of the Nursing Act (Act No 33 of 1995); made regulations pertaining to the education and training of professional nurses and midwives.

Of specific interest are the definitions of:

• Clinical accompaniment, which “means a structured process by a nurse education institution to facilitate assistance and support to the learner by the nurse educator at the clinical facility to ensure the achievement of the programme outcomes;”
• Clinical facility, which “means a continuum of services to promote health and provide care to individuals and groups, used to teach learners;”
• Clinical learning opportunities, which “means the range of learning experiences available in a healthcare setting or other experiential learning sites for a learner to gain the required clinical skills;”
• Clinical placement, which “means the period spent by a learner in clinical and other experiential learning sites to ensure that the purpose of the programme is achieved;”
• Clinical supervision, which “means the assistance and support extended to the learner by the professional nurse or midwife at a clinical facility with an aim of developing a competent, independent practitioner;”

The gazetted regulations further includes several other definitions of terminology such as assessment / assessment method / integrated assessment / assessor / moderation / moderator; competence / learning outcomes / programme outcomes; comprehensive nursing; fundamental learning; programme / qualification; and recognition of prior learning. The regulations further deal with issues such as requirements for registration in the two said nursing categories; accreditation of education institutions; admission criteria; minimum programme requirements; clinical education and training; the assessment and moderation of learning outcomes; transfers; recognition of prior learning; application of these regulations, as well as transitional arrangements.

Nursing Act: Regulations: Approval of and minimum requirements for education and training of learners leading to registration in categories professional nurse and midwife, (G 36235, RG 9927, GoN 174), 8 March 2013

Restorative Formative Normative Custodian

In an article titled ‘But I thought you were doing that’ Rowe, Mackaway and Winchester-Seeto (2012) attempt to clarify the role of the host mentor/supervisor in the experience-based learning setting. They present the following model:

The model identifies four key roles: Restorative (supporting the student); Formative (fulfilling an educatinal role); Normative (administrative functions); and Custodian (guardian role within the community of practice). 

The article elaborates on the aspects that make up the four roles.

Rowe, T.; Mackaway, J. & Winchester-Seeto, T. 2012. ‘But I thought you were doing that’ – Clarifying the role of the host supervisor in experience-based learning. Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 2012(2), 115-134.

Rhizomatous propagation of Co-op & Work-integrated Ed support

Propagating involves the breeding of specimens by natural processes from the parent stock. Rhizomes are creeping plant rootstalks or rootstocks that send out shoots and roots from its nodes. The word rhizome originates from New Latin rhizoma, meaning a "mass of roots"; which stems from Ancient Greek rhizóō, meaning "cause to strike root"; and rhiza, meaning "a root".

Cooperative and Work-integrated Education qualifications/programmes are distinguished by two characteristics, namely:

• Credit bearing work-experience forms an important part/s of the curriculum that is aimed at producing work-ready graduates.
• The curriculum is designed in conjunction with, supported by, and retained relevant by representation from the occupational-field that the programme is intended for.

Good Cooperative and Work-integrated Education practice is characterised by:

• An appropriate advisory system ensuring the retained relevance of the programme through providing regular updating input and critique about the existing curriculum.
• Continuous propagating and cultivating activities to retain and expand a supportive occupational community which is vital for (a) providing real-life work experience opportunities; as well as (b) mentoring of students by workplace supervisors during period of experience; and (c) evaluative input about the competence acquisition of students for graduation purposes.

The metaphor (rhizomatous propagation) suggests:

• Starting of a new garden from good quality rhizomes (irises, cannas and asparagus) — curriculum design in close collaboration with the vocational community and/or professional/statutory body.
• Keep the programme flavour just right by cooking/brewing with good quality rhizomes (ginger, hops and turmeric) — frequently consult the community of practice.
• The underground rhizome is crucial to longevity — foragers, insects, fungus, and fires may attempt to damage the qualification (the above-ground portion of an aspen colony), but a supportive group of practitioners will keep the qualification healthy and protected against threats.
• Rhizomes send out internodes that form roots from the bottom of the nodes and new upward-growing shoots from the top of the nodes — the members of the programme’s advisory system are instrumental in expanding the network of supportive organisations.
• Similar to a rhizome, a stolon (e.g. strawberry plants) grow long internodes that generates new shoots at the end — active marketing interventions takes place to generate wider support.
• A rhizome (also stem tuber or enlarged stolon) serves as storage organ that is often high in starch (e.g. common potatoes) — enabling survival during winter or drought.
• The rhizomes of some species grow above ground, e.g. iris species lie at the soil surface; whereas other are underground, e.g. bamboo — some members of the community of practice render explicit support whereas the contributions of other are equivocal.
• Generally rhizomes form a single layer, but some form a multi-tiered mass — in some communities of practice a qualification may lead to a variety of career paths, whereas in other it is limited.

Work-integrated learning as method of structured distance learning

The South African Ministry of Higher Education and Training (MHET) published the draft Policy Framework for the Provision of Distance Higher Education in the Government Gazette on 29 May 2012.

Based on the MHET Policy’s glossary (p. 4) definition of distance education work-integrated learning (WIL) can be regarded as a method of structured distance learning:

... a set of teaching and learning strategies (or educational methods) that can be used to overcome spatial and/or temporal separation between educators and students. However, it is not a single mode of delivery. It is a collection of methods for the provision of structured learning. It avoids the need for students to discover the curriculum by attending classes frequently and for long periods. Rather, it aims to create a quality learning environment using an appropriate combination of different media, tutorial support, peer group discussion, and practical sessions (emphasis added).

This is emphasised on page 8 of the draft MHET Policy that states: "Distance education proceeds from the belief that learning can be nurtured without necessarily requiring teachers and learners to be in the same place at the same time, and that the resource based nature of distance education allows for the possibility to achieve economies of scale" (emphasis added).

Page 8 of the draft MHET Policy also points out that distance education 'requires substantial up-front investment in curriculum design and materials development, including attention to issues of structure, pacing and meaningful formative assessment, as well as considerable investment in decentralised student support' (emphasis added), which is also true about WIL. Page 12 of the draft MHET Policy continues to state: 'Online communication allows students and academics to remain separated by space and time (although some forms of communication assume people congregating at a common time), but to sustain an ongoing dialogue. Online asynchronous discussion forums, for example, reflect an instance where the spatial separation between educator and learners is removed by the ‘virtual’ space of the Internet, but where there remains temporal separation' (emphasis added). The facilitation of reflection among students during and after stints of WIL has been emphasised.

Item 4.2.2 (h), pp. 22-23 of the draft MHET Policy giving the example of teacher education should enjoy appropriate attention:

Teacher education is a good example here: it remains in the lowest CESM funding category even though new accreditation requirements require investment in a robust teaching practice placement, mentoring and supervision system. While teaching practice has been funded as a full course at funding level 1, the issue now is to define it as an experiential learning component through the funding review process and thus fund it accordingly. Similar concerns arise regarding any programmes of study that require substantive work-integrated-learning and/or practical components and/or substantial online engagement between teachers and students in synchronous and asynchronous fora. Such requirements militate against the potential of achieving economies of scale.

It needs to be pointed out that the statement above does not mention the role of the teaching community of practice, which is a very important oversight. The collaborative notion in Cooperative and Work-integrated Education is not mentioned in the draft policy. The establishment of a supportive community of practice is crucial with regard to curriculum design, especially if work-integrated learning is decided upon as most appropriate method.

Practitioners, serving as mentors for learners, are the third key players in programmes that include work-integrated learning as preferred method. The up-front investment in for quality work-integrated learning includes appropriate materials development that would structure and pace learning as well as empower workplace mentors to offer meaningful formative assessment. This is where the investment of decentralised student support of quality work-integrated learning should focus. (Page 8 of the draft MHET Policy)

Although improvement of the quality of distance education is mentioned in section 4.3 (p. 23); concern about quality and of “inadequate practical work or exposure to work integrated learning” is highlighted.

Republic of South Africa. 2012. Department of Higher Education and Training. Draft Policy Framework for the Provision of Distance Higher Education in South African Universities. Retrieved online from: http://www.dhet.gov.za/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=ZgZKPb1fM38%3D&tabid=36

Distance education through sophisticated online format may be a global trend

Like many other, the library profession has evolved from an apprenticeship or vocational training to a fully fledged academic discipline coupled with practical training. The library practicum is field-based, supervised, and a professional learning experience taking place within a library—exposing students to a variety of tasks and learning experiences of a range of library operations. Since the beginning of the present century the mode of library and information science education has undergone change.

While distance education is perhaps the most suitable and effective medium for library and information science education in developed countries; it is not necessary the case in developing countries. In countries like Pakistan, the electronic infrastructure situation is not yet adequate for shifting to online teaching. Of particular importance to note is that although two distance library and information science programmes exists in Pakistan students who are remotely located without appropriate information and communication technology (ICT) facilities cannot much use of these programmes. Traditional modes of delivery are therefore prevailing. Furthermore, because libraries in the developing countries tend also to be traditional, content such as classification, cataloguing, traditional reference service, and library management still dominate the curriculum.

Malik, A. & Ameen, K. 2010. Effectiveness of library practicum: perceptions of LIS graduates in Pakistan. Library Review, 59(8), 573-584. Accessed online from Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

Three modes of experiential education

The Best Practices for Legal Education (2007) publication of the Clinical Legal Education Association (CLEA) represents the fruit of 25 years of rich dialogue among American law teachers, lawyers, and judges, regarding the education of lawyers. In the foreword is stated that the American Bar Association convened a 1984 conference ‘Legal Education and the Profession: Approaching the 21st Century’. The foreword further states that in 1987 Justice Rosalie Wahl of the Minnesota Supreme Court and Chair of the ABA Section of Legal Education and Admissions to the Bar rhetorically asked:

Have we really tried in law school to determine what skills, what attitudes, what character traits, what quality of mind are required of lawyers? Are we adequately educating students through the content and methodology of our present law school curriculums to perform effectively as lawyers after graduation?

The purpose of this elaborate prologue is to convey the credible nature of the three modes of experiential education identified in Chapter 5: Best Practices for Experiential Courses (pp 121 – 152, note that the page numbers of individual online chapters differ from the full publication) of the CLEA Best Practices for Legal Education (2007: 122), namely:

• In-house law clinics offering students opportunities to represent clients or perform other professional roles under the supervision of members of the faculty
• Externships — where students represent clients or perform other professional roles under the supervision of practicing lawyers or they observe or assist practicing lawyers or judges in their work
• Simulation-based courses granting students hypothetical situations to assume professional roles and perform law-related tasks

These three modes, although many different terms are used, are common in many disciplines, for example:

• Practicals, laboratory work, applied field experiences facilitated and managed by lecturers
• Work-integrated/experiential/work-based learning in the occupational field under supervision of an experienced practitioner
• Simulated learning providing experience in hypothetical situations

Brayne, Duncan and Grimes (1998: 244) address externships as a means for law students to obtain a credit “working in legal settings”. It is interesting to note that “in the United States, students may not receive financial compensation for work which warrants educational credit”. Brayne, Duncan and Grimes (1998) identify both advantages and disadvantages with regard to externships. Potential advantages include “lower costs, variety of opportunities, work experience, service to the community, and flexibility”. As far as disadvantages are concerned, the main one identified is the potential “lack of control over the quality of the educational experience”.

Brayne, H; Duncan, N & Grimes, R. 1998. Clinical legal education: active learning in your law school. London: Blackstone.

Stuckey, R & Others. 2007. Best Practices for Legal Education. United States: Clinical Legal Education Association. Retrieved 2 November 2011 from: http://www.cleaweb.org/best-practices -- note the hyperlink to the best practices blog at the bottom of the web page.

Semester in-industry learning industry affiliates model

The semester-in-industry model is, according to Edwards (2007) a characteristic of the Australian undergraduate engineering work-integrated learning industry affiliates program. Engineers Australia, the Australian engineering accrediting body, advocates that a key differentiating element of a professional engineering degree from an applied science degree is exposure through work-practice. The industry affiliates program entail students work on a joint industry-university supervised project during the first semester of the final year. Edwards (2007) summarizes the roles and responsibilities of the three partners to the industry affiliates program as follow:

• The industry partner provides the resources for the project; technical supervision for the student; and a suitable workplace for the student similar to that provided for commencing engineers. Industry partners are not expected to pay students.
• The aim is to integrate the student into the professional culture of organization. The student manages the project and adheres to the dress and attendance standards of the industry partner.
• The university selects suitable projects (in consultation with industry partners); help match students to projects; and provides academic supervision of students by visiting student in industry placement to ensure the meeting of requirements.

 The schedule of a typical industry affiliates program model is as follow (Edwards 2007):

October (of year before)	Briefing of students and preparation of CVs
November	List of project topics released and student apply
December to January	Students interviewed and selected for projects
February	Pre-industry workshops; agreements signed between industry partner and student; and student prepares project milestones
February to June	Industry experience by executing an assigned project and regular monitoring of project plan by industry and university
June	Exhibition of projects and submission of thesis

Work-integrated Learning (WiL) is a term used by many Australian universities and internationally to refer to activities that integrate the work (or industry) experience with formal studies. Edwards (2007) points out that it can take multiple forms, such as periods of work experience, internships, site visits, industry based projects, case studies using industry experience, having industry experts provide guest lectures, etc.

Edwards, D. 2007. Integrating Work Integrated Learning. Presented at the International Conference on Engineering Education – ICEE 2007, September 3 – 7, Coimbra, Portugal. Retrieved February 10, 2011 from http://www.ineer.org/Events/ICEE2007/papers/226.pdf   

Raw learning materials and learning tools

Sweitzer & King (2004:4-5) differentiates between classroom and internship learning with regard to two dimensions. I am adapting their description to distance education:

	Distance theoretical learning	Internship learning
The raw learning materials	Study guides, reading, tutorial letters, exercises, on-line discussions & tutorial sessions	Intellectual, physical and human experimental interactions—full of feelings and struggles. These emotions are not just a backdrop to the real-work experience, but every bit as real and important. Mastery of psyco-motor skills may also apply.
The learning tools	Memorise, analyse, synthesise and evaluate.	Experience must be processed and organised; reflective dialogue with self and others is a primary tool for learning; and relationships are the medium of internship.

Please note that Sweitzer & King (2004:3) use the internship to refer to a range terms of that entail an academic credit for experiences, for example field work/experience, cooperative/field education and practicum (terms they indicate no consensus exists on about the meaning).

Sweitzer & King (2004:6-7) further clarify the following terms (Download Sweitzer+King-terms):

• Placement or site—refers to the place where the student is working (gaining experience).
• Intern—refers to the student or volunteer who is working.
• Supervisor—person assigned by the placement site to mentor the student.
• Instructor—the academic staff member that oversees the student's placement.
• Coworker—refers to other people working at the placement.

Sweitzer, H.F. & King, M.A. 2004. The successful internship—transformation and empowerment in experiential learning, 2^nd edition. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole—Thompson Learning.

Commentary e-mailed by a peer:

"Thomas, my comments:

Perhaps consideration be given to differentiate between and internship and experiential learning/work integrated learning. Internship specifically refers to students after a qualification has been achieved, whilst experiential learning/WIL is while the student is busy with its qualification.

The principle of experiential learning applies to both however there might be a difference. I do recognize a difference since the one is part of a qualification and the students is perhaps less mature than a graduate (intern) who is more mature and is a graduate. Time is an important factor. Maturity in terms of cognitive, emotional, social skills  etc

Wrt internship, I would recommend the integration of the theories of learning which will explain many of the emotional, social and cognitive processes of the learner, in terms of EL/WIL which can be related to an intern as well.

Wrt Terminology:  

I prefer using a workstation instead of a placement site,

Instructor I am a bit uncomfortable with, I would rather use a term like a supervisor or mentor.

Hope this was of value Thomas!

Marius"

Reflective practice for collective learning

Raelin (2000: 101) calls "the process of public reflection" reflective practice; it is a community of inquiry and creates a collective identity. He defines reflection as "the practice of periodically stepping back to ponder the meaning to self and others in one's immediate environment about what has transpired. It illuminates what has been experienced by both self and others, providing a basic for future education", he adds.

Raelin (2000: 101-2) emphasises learning dialogues, as element of reflective practice, taking place in the security of trustworthy peers based on the direct experiences of work. Raelin (p. 103) refers to Plato's statement that 'the unexamined life isn't worth living' meaning that others need to be included in the examination of life experiences. It is more than collective naval gazing; it isintorspection midst of practice and in the presence of others.

"Reflective practitioners 'reinvest' in learning by participating in continuing education" and "engage in problem posing as much as problem solving, continually expand[ing] their solution database rather than select the first solution that works, view inconsistencies as opportunities rather than inconveniences, and enjoy reflecting back on their decision making rather than sealing off debate" (Raelin 2000: 105). Four explicit reflective practices that can be used each on its own or combined are presented by Raelin (2000: 115-145):

1. Learning teams

Work-based learning often involves action learning in teams. Co-workers undertake projects together, discuss dilemmas of work actions, as well as "the application or misapplication of concepts and theories to these actions" (p. 115). The learning device is to pose questions to one another.

2. Journaling

But "the journal is arguably the most endemic technique we have to enhance our self-reflection" admits Raelin (p. 124). Yet, he continues, although it is "often used as an introspective tool for personal growth, it can also serve as an aid to bring together the inner and outer parts of our lives. It offers a lens to view experience—be it before, during, or after the event under scrutiny—and it even allows further reflection on the journal entries themselves." The journal is a potent vehicle to collect private data for public learning dialogues and may include any one or more of the following:

• Logs or reports of specific factual experiences.
• Lists of observations or ideas.
• Portraits or descriptions of people or situations.
• Memoirs of personal experiences.
• Catalogues of feelings/perceptions in situations or about people.
• Intimate accounts including personal sentiments, confessions and notes.
• Dialogues recordings.
• Conceptual understandings.
• Commentary of applications of concepts.
• Social histories (stories) of issues unfolding.
• Maps of consciousness to capture the state of mind.
• Guided imagery, meditated frames of reference and/or dreams.
• Altered points of view in different contexts or timeframes.
• Contradictions or dilemmas experiences or observed.
• Inconsistencies noticed
• Surprises experiences.

3. Developmental planning

Developmental planning often linked to career development. It involves the individual interests, needs and expectations, as well as the organisational objectives and resource requirements. It is often an element of the overall organisational performance management strategy.

4. Developmental relationships

Examples of developmental relationships include coaching and mentoring.

Raelin, J.A. 2000. Work-based learning—the new frontier of management development. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Five-stage internship model

While browsing the table of contents of the Sweitzer and King (1999: 59-65) publication The Successful Internship, Chapter 4 caught my eye: The stages of an Internship. Looking at the names of the five stages, it reminded me immediately of a post I did on 14 October 2009, about Oden's (2001) four movements of hospitality. I would like to draw a comparison between an intern's five stages of mind-state and the four movements of hospitality the mentor or supervisor should enact to alleviate the intern's frustration and contribute to better accomplishment:

An intern's likely five stages of mind-state	A mentor/supervisor's four movements in hospitality
Anticipation	Welcoming
Disillusionment	Restoring
Confrontation	Dwelling
Competence	Sending forth
Culmination

An intern usually looks forward in anticipation to her/his internship, only to start at a very low level of responsibility and opportunity to accomplish. The mentor or intern supervisor should be sensitive as host and welcome the intern (as guess).

Often disillusionment sets in, because of the difference between the prior anticipation and the reality taking place. This is where the mentor or intern supervisor, as host, should act hospitably and help restoring the intern—think of a guess that travelled a distance in primitive circumstances, arriving with feet dusty, probably thirsty and hungry. Restoring the guess by attending to her/his needs is important, similarly by engaging the intern by putting her/him at ease, giving the intern an orientation and see to the intern's safety, etc.

Sweitzer and King (1999: 62) quote the saying "The only way around is through", that is confronting the situation. The mentor or intern supervisor preparedness to dwell, that is in Oden's words "hospitality of presence— the mentor's demonstration of willingness to share her/his work knowledge, experiences and expertise; involving the intern in day-to-day work happening and answering the intern's questions; but also asking the intern's opinions and listen to the intern's suggestions in terms of her/his academic knowledge.

The dwelling enables the intern to gain competence, which leads to the culmination phase. Similarly the preceding three movements of hospitality has restored and empowered the guess to go forth, the host sends the intern forth.

I noticed that Sweitzer and King (2008) subsequently produced a follow-up publication: The Successful Internship: Personal, Professional, and Civic Development.

References

Oden, AG (Ed.). 2001. And you welcome me: a sourcebook on hospitality in early Christianity. Nashville, TN: Abingdon.

Sweitzer, H.F. & King, M.A. 1999. The successful internship—transformation & empowerment. Pacific Groove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Sweitzer, H.F. & King, M.A. 2008. The Successful Internship: Personal, Professional, and Civic Development. Thomson Brooks/Cole

Supervising 6-9 interns corresponds to one semester's 3-credit course

The Department of Communications Media at Fitchburg State College found, based on over 25 years of experience, that "supervising between 6 to 9 interns in a full-time internship that corresponds to a semester in length is the equivalent of one 3-credit course" (Sides & Mrvica 2007:69). They also discuss the pros and cons of removing internship supervision from academic departments versus having faculty supervise internships. Although removing supervision from academic departments eliminate encroaching on teaching, research or service time, it may result in result in rudimentary and superficial supervision, reduced to “ensuring that deadlines are met, appropriate forms are completed, and interns are progressing appropriately toward the completion of their internship”.

My personal expereince is that if the cooperative education practitioner (intern supervisor) is a subject matter expert, she can engage with students in dialogue about their learning experiences.

Sides CH. & Mrvica A. 2007. Internships, theory and practice. New York: Baywood

Classic, modern & postmodern internship models

Download Internship models

Supervision, mentoring & coaching - 'ex cathedra'?

Literature on supervision, coaching and mentoring - John Launer (2006: 268) observes - "seems to exist on islands that are not in communication with each other". Some islands identified by professions-such as counselling and psychotherapy-other islands through their theoretical bent-such as psychoanalysis, systhemic family therapy, neurolinguistic programming (NLP) and client-centred approaches-and within most islands appear to be a particular 'ex cathedral' terminological preference (from an infallable authority) with rarely any attempt to contextualise definitions, frameworks or theoretical positions. "Readers are often left to work out for themselves exactly what the author's set of assumptions and agendas might be, and why" Launer remarks.

Yet, it appears from a literature review undertaken by Launer, that authors seem to address the same notions in one form or another. He reasons that perhaps it is not surprising, because of operating from individual professional bunkers. He remarks that few scholars can master the entire literature of their own field/s of interest, let alone other. However, many he states "are guilty of what Freud called "the narcissism of small differences' "(p. 269).

Launer, J. 2006. Reflective practice and clinical supervison: making sense of supervision, mentoring and coaching, Work Based Learning in Primary Care, 2006(4), 268-270.

Modelling, coaching, scaffolding & fading

According to Billett (1994:11) the goal of apprenticeships, as a situated-learning methodology, is to assist learners to acquire and integrate the knowledge and attributes for skilled vocational practice. Billett further states that apprenticeship stresses an interplay between observation, scaffolding and increased independence of learners. As instruction method, apprenticeships ought to involve four phases:

Modelling, according to Billett (1994:11) requires an expert to execute a task so that the learner(s) can observe and build a conceptual model of the process involved in accomplishing the task successfully. However, the expert must also verbalise his or her thinking (the cognitive/internal procedures deployed). Modelling enables the learner to visualise the task execution. The implications for employers, other than the time to sensitise experts to reveal their cognitive processes, are largely beneficial, in that tasks are done according to specifications.

Coaching may result in a decrease in production, since it requires experts to observe and monitor the learners carrying out the tasks. In addition to feedback, experts may provide hints, clues and the tricks of the trade. Repeated demonstrations may also be required (Billett, 1994:11-12), which may consume even more time. However, Dougherty & Tan (1997:32) believe that training costs tend to be systematically overestimated, because the cost of a trainer hour is estimated by using the trainer’s wage rate. However, the real costs may be much less, because the trainer often fits training sessions into periods when he or she would otherwise have been idle.

Scaffolding refers to support given from a greater distance (Billett, 1994:12). Ideally, scaffolding implies an accurate diagnosis of the learner’s skill level and the entrusting of parts of or complete tasks that the learner should be able to complete. Additional suggestions may be offered or help required from the expert. It is further suggested that scaffolding should involve joint problem solving. Employers should start regaining lost production time as learners start to master the tasks and achieve output. Dougherty & Tan (1997:33) claim that several studies have found that training costs are recouped even if the trained worker stayed on for only a short while after mastery.

Fading is the gradual removal of support until learners are able to conduct tasks autonomously (Billett, 1994:12).

(This is an extract form a paper presented January 1998 - Download AICJAN98-Artisans.DOC )