Learning in vivo

Workplace learning (WPL) and work-related learning (WRL) are associated with training activities such as continuing professional development (CPD)

Workplace learning (WPL) and work-related learning (WRL) “are more associated with training activities such as continuing professional development (CPD) courses.” Say Gerhardt and Mackenzie-Philps (2018: 409) They remark that “terms are [often] used extensively interchangeably with conflicting conceptualisations” which may results in confusion.

Gerhardt and Mackenzie-Philps (2018: 409) indicate that work integrated learning (WIL) is “a more encompassing term”, meaning including entirely or comprehensively, and differentiate “work-based learning (WBL) is what is learnt by working, by the actual undertaking of work activities”. It “questions the more traditional notion that knowledge is held and transferred by the privileged few through formal situations in pre-determined ways” and “specifically, enables accelerated access through transferable skills, initial professional preparation for the ‘real world’, explicit contextual professional development and the use of problem-based learning” (PBL). In contrast “to workplace learning (WPL) and work-related learning (WRL)”, WBL is furthermore linked “to academic learning and programmes”, they say.

They remark further that “generally, WIL are structured programmes of learning where work skills are practised or experienced in a work-like environment”; and elaborate that “only WBL is attached to an academic programme or course”. They indicate that “WIL will often involve online and blended learning (OBL) modes of delivery” or multimodal learning, because such modes “allows working adults access to learning anywhere at any time”. A positive correlation has been found “a between technology usage and the individual development of skills, knowledge, and productivity, i.e. self-efficacy.” (Gerhardt & Mackenzie-Philps, 2018: 409).

“Online technologies and social media innovations … enable progression as it facilitates access wherever you are”. Furthermore “virtual learning environments (VLEs) or learning management systems” (LMSs) as educational space, enhance learning say Gerhardt and Mackenzie-Philps (2018: 410) because of their popularity “among students as they ‘coordinate many different aspects of your study and can generally be used in flexible ways, when and where you choose’”. The VLE/LMS lend itself to facilitating communication; providing training, teaching material and resources; serving as self-testing and assessment portholes or as mediating tools; and supporting inter/tra-action and collaboration. Social networking sites (SNSs) “can further enhance learning, collaboration and engagement and can include forums, weblogs, social networks, video, images and podcasts”

Gerhardt, T. & Mackenzie-Philps, L. (2018). The challenges and opportunities of ICT in WIL, A case study among priests exploring the correlation and trajectory between effective WIL and ICT pervasiveness. Higher Education, Skills and Work-Based Learning, 8(4), 408-421. DOI 10.1108/HESWBL-07-2017-0045

Different forms, types or modalities of work-integrated learning (WIL)

The Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework (HEQSF) (South African Government, 2014) differentiates five forms work-integrated learning (WIL), and the imbedded WIL template, under section D (p. 8) of the Council on Higher Education (CHE, 2021), Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC) offline version of the online ‘Application for programme accreditation and qualification registration’, two more:

1. virtual or simulated learning,
2. work-directed theoretical learning (WDTL),
3. problem-based learning (PBL),
4. project-based learning (PjBL),
5. workplace-based learning (WPBL),
6. practicum placements,
7. service-learning, and so on.

The CHE’s Good Practice Guide (2011) advocates four distinct WIL curricular modalities, namely WDTL, PBL, PjBL and WPBL above. The eight definitions below were composed through consultation of several sources.

Practicum (plural practicums) placements	is a course/programme module, or part thereof, that involves involving activities emphasising the practical/clinical application of theory, knowledge and skills of the qualification curriculum; gaining on-the-job/vocation/professional experience; putting into practice; clinical/practical training; actual working in the area/field of study
Problem-based learning (PBL)	is a radical form of teaching which entail that ‘problems’, rather than academic subjects, as organising structure of the curriculum, with the main objective the acquisition of an extensive, integrated knowledge base. Problem-oriented learning is more commonly used and involves the inclusion of real-world scenarios for problem-based activities, assignments, and projects. Ill-structured problems stimulate the generation of multiple hypotheses or potential solutions. Ill-structured problems further allow students to observe, interview, and review records or documents to obtain needed information.
Project-based learning (PjBL)	involves learning through projects. Projects are either ‘real’ projects located in the world of work; or simulated with input from workplaces. Projects generally involve elements of research and supervision by both a university lecturer and workplace supervisor or mentor. PJBL enables the acquisition of an extensive, integrated knowledge base that students can draw on and apply to the analysis and solution of problems.
Service-learning	generally entails voluntary activities directed at specific community needs, applied learning and engaging in reflection to deepen understanding of what is being taught. It could be credit-bearing, if integrated into the curriculum of an academic programme and assessed as such., It may take place with an agency (usually a non-profit or social service group).
Simulated (or virtual) learning	means the learning and teaching technologies used to create artificial learning environments to enhance or replace a student’s actual experience with the world of work through simulations. For example, live projects, case studies, employer talks, role play, mentoring, and e-simulations.
Work-directed theoretical learning (WDTL)	enables the alignment of theoretical understanding with the practical or practice-based components and enabling students to apply such in the workplace. Presentations by workplace and/or professional practice may be used.
Work-integrated learning (WIL)	is used as an umbrella term to describe curricular, pedagogic and assessment practices, across a range of academic disciplines that integrate formal learning and workplace concerns. The International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning (IJWIL) defines WIL as "an educational approach that uses relevant work-based experiences to allow students to integrate theory with the meaningful practice of work as an intentional component of the curriculum. Defining elements of this educational approach require that students engage in authentic and meaningful work-related tasks, and must involve three stakeholders; the student, the university, and the workplace/community." (www.ijwil.org)
Workplace-based learning (WPBL)	happens when students are placed in work environments for the purposes of learning, which provides students with real life work experiences, in order internalise knowledge, skills and competencies, and gain insights through exposure to work by achieving specific outcomes. Both the HEQSF & CHE (2014) specify criteria for work(place)-based learning.

The Regulations (South African Government, 2018) for WPBL Agreements, lists nine forms of WPBL, requiring selection:

1. Apprenticeship
2. Learnership
3. Internship for the ‘N’ Diploma
4. Candidacy (postgrad for professional)
5. Student internship. Category A (for certificates & diplomas in HEQSF)
6. Student internship: Category B (requirement professional registration)
7. Student internship: Category C (for QCTO qualifications)
8. Student internship (SAQA qualification & vacation work)
9. Graduate internship (got qualification, to gain workplace experience)

Council on Higher Education (2011). Work-Integrated Learning: Good Practice Guide. HE Monitor No. 12, August 2011. Pretoria: IeCommunications. Electronically accessible from https://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/Higher_Education_Monitor_12.pdf

Council on Higher Education (2014). Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Programme Accreditation Criteria, pp. 81 – 107. In Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide. Electronically accessible from https://www.saide.org.za/documents/CHE_-_Distance_Higher_Education.pdf

Council on Higher Education (2021). Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC) offline version of the online ‘Application for programme accreditation and qualification registration’. https://www.che.ac.za/publications/submissions/heqc-offline-application

South African Government. (2014), Department of Higher Education and Training, Government Notice No 819. Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework. Government Gazette No. 38116, 17 October 2014. Electronically accessible from https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201410/38116gon819.pdf

South African Government. (2018). Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) workplace based learning programme agreement regulations. Department of Higher Education and Training. Government Gazette No 42037, 16 November 2018. Skills Development Act (Act 97 of 1998). https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201811/42037gon1241.pdf

Regulations for workplace-based learning (WPBL) programme agreements

The Gazetted (RSA, 2018: 43) Regulations define ‘workplace based learning’ as an “educational component of an occupational qualifications that provides students with real life work experiences where they can apply academic and technical skills and increase the prospect of employability”. It further defines ‘workplace based learning programme’ as an “intervention as contemplated in an occupational qualification [through] which a person internalizes knowledge, skills and competencies and gain insights through exposure to work by achieving specific outcomes to enhance employability”.

The Gazetted (RSA, 2018) WPBL agreement, Annexure A (pp 54-65), Part C, section 6 (p. 63), differentiates nine (9) types of workplace-based learning programmes, defined in Part B – Definitions (pp 54-55), namely:

1. Apprenticeship — a period of WPBL culminating in an occupational qualification for a listed trade
2. Learnership — a period of WPBL culminating in an occupational qualification or part qualification
3. Internship for the ‘N’ Diploma — a period of WPBL undertaken as part of the requirement for the ‘N’ Diploma
4. Candidacy — a period of WPBL undertaken by a graduate as part of a requirement for registration as a professional in the required professional designation as stipulated by a professional body
5. Student internship: Category A — a period of WPBL undertaken as part of the requirement for the Diploma, National Diploma, Higher Certificate or Advanced Certificate as a vocational qualification stipulated in the Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework (HEQSF)
6. Student internship: Category B — a period of WPBL undertaken as part of the requirement for a professional qualification
7. Student internship: Category C — a period of WPBL undertaken as part of the requirement for the Occupational Qualifications of the Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO)
8. Student internship — a period of WPBL for a person who is enrolled at an education and training institution for a SAQA registered qualification and may include vacation work
9. Graduate internship — a period of WPBL for the purposes allowing a person who has completed a post-school qualification to gain workplace experience or exposure to enhance competence and/or employability. This may include academic staff with existing qualifications that need industrial exposure or experience.

Part C (pp. 55-) of the agreement addresses the terms and conditions:

• Declaration of the parties — learners, employers and providers
• Rights & duties of the learner (pp. 55-56), the employer (pp. 56-57), and provider (pp. 57-58)
• Completion or termination of the agreement (p. 58)
• Learner details (pp. 59-60) and contract of employment (p 63)
• Employer details (pp. 60-61)
• Provider details (p. 62)
• Signatories (pp. 64-65)

The Gazetted Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) – WPBL programme agreement Regulations (RSA, 2018: 40) states that the purpose is to provide for:

• adding to the definition of ‘learning programme’ the terms ‘candidacy’ and ‘internship’, which are recognised forms of work-based learning (WBL);
• “the preparation, submission, registration and management of work-based learning programme agreements, and [for] the management of disputes and certain administrative arrangements”; and
• the repeal of the former 2007 Learnership Regulations

The Regulations, applicable to all workplace-based learning (WPBL) programmes, comprise six (6) chapters, including the following content:

1. Definitions (1) and Application (2)
2. Parties to the agreement (3) and their rights and duties (4)
3. Registration of agreement, including submission of agreement form (5), conditional placement of the learner (6), requirements of registration (7), additional requirements for a group of employers (8), and for a group of providers (9), registration decision by SETA (10), amendment of agreement (11), substitution of party (12), suspension of agreement (13), termination of agreement (14), clarification of learner achievements (15), and completion of agreement (16)
4. Registering learnerships (17), amending registered learnerships (18), and deregistration of learnerships (19)
5. The referral of disputes (20)
6. Administrative provisions such as recordkeeping by SETAs (21), repeal of regulations (22), transitional arrangements (23), and short title and commencement from 1 April 2019 (24)

There is further an annexure B, namely an ‘application to register a learnership’.

Republic of South Africa (RSA). (2018). Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) workplace based learning programme agreement regulations. Department of Higher Education and Training. Government Gazette No 42037, 16 November 2018. Skills Development Act (Act 97 of 1998). Electronically accessible from https://www.dhet.gov.za/gazetteTEST/Workplace%20Based%20learning%20Programme%20Agreement.pdf

Equivalent workplace learning experience through learning agreements

What is meant by the HEQSF, §35 (South African Government, 2014: 17) and CHE criterium 15 (Council on Higher Education, 2014: 104) statements “workplace-based learning must be appropriately structured”; “to ensure an equivalent learning experience across a wider range of contexts”; “learning contracts or agreements are implemented”? Templates are not provided, and details not specified, however, the CHE Focus Area: Programme Accreditation webpage states “accreditation and audit systems form part of an interconnected quality assurance system”. This page indicates that academic programmes are evaluated in accordance with criteria, which stipulate the minimum requirements for programme input, process, output and impact, and review”. The page also lists and hyperlinks several publications, such as the Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC) ‘Application for programme accreditation and qualification registration’ for download. Section D, pertaining programme or qualification design, in particular question 11 (p. 8) and the imbedded template on work-integrated learning (WIL) is of significance. Question 3 of the template requires an “Explain[ation of] the process for the supervision and monitoring of WIL (in the case of workplace-based learning). Discuss how the institution will ensure parity of learning experiences and assessments across workplace sites.” The workplace-based learning (WPBL) outcomes and assessment criteria (question 4) informs the content. In this regard CHE criterium 15 (referenced above) states that through learning agreements “the student, the higher education institution and the employer can negotiate, approve and assess the objectives and outcomes of the learning process. Various parties, i.e. the institution, students, mentors and employers, adhere to the contract or agreement on their roles and responsibilities”. Bonnet (2009) presents one such example for engineering. The content of the document is in tabular format, including:

• Number and learning item
• A description of the required experience and learning outcome
• The envisaged duration
• Report or learning evidence required
• Signature of verification

Ligon and Ward (2002) offer a step-by-step guide to writing a learning agreement:

• What, namely the learning goals and expected outcomes
• When does the learning have to take place and be completed
• ‘SPIRO’ — Specific; Performance orientated activities, specifying who and the nature of Involvement; Realistically accomplishable; and Observable, based on tangible and measurable outcomes.
• The learning broken up into doable portions

Bonnet, P. (2009). Program documents 1+2, Engineering Practical –1+2, Memorandum of Understanding P‐1+2. In appendix to ‘Development of a competency-based work-integrated learning program to facilitate science, engineering and technology retention in South Africa as a developing country’. Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 10(2), 65-74. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/Bonnet_Appendix.pdf

Council on Higher Education (2014). Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Programme Accreditation Criteria, pp. 81 – 107. In Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide. Electronically accessible from https://www.saide.org.za/documents/CHE_-_Distance_Higher_Education.pdf

Council on Higher Education (n.d.). Programme Accreditation. Electronically accessible from https://www.che.ac.za/focus-areas/programme-accreditation.

Council on Higher Education (n.d.). Application for programme accreditation and qualification registration. Electronically accessible from https://www.che.ac.za/publications/submissions/heqc-offline-application

Ligon, J. & Ward, J. (2002). The field learning agreement. The new Social Worker, fall, 14-15.

South African Government (2014), Department of Higher Education and Training, Government Notice No 819. Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework. Government Gazette No. 38116, 17 October 2014. Electronically accessible from https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201410/38116gon819.pdf

Work-based learning (WBL) is one form of work-integrated learning (WIL)

The South African Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework (HEQSF, 2014: §34, p. 17) states that some qualifications incorporate work-integrated learning (WIL) into the curriculum, and that “WIL may take various forms including simulated learning, work-directed theoretical learning, problem-based learning, project-based learning and workplace-based learning”. Similarly, the Council on Higher Education (CHE, 2014: 34) reference regarding curriculum design, development and delivery for distance education in a digital era CHE (2011: 16-21) specify different curricular modalities namely:

• Work-directed theoretical learning.
• Problem-based learning.
• Project-based learning.
• Workplace learning.

Other CHE (2004) publications, such as the ‘Criteria for Institutional Audits’ and the ‘Criteria for Programme Accreditation’ respectively, specified work-based learning; and indicate that ‘experiential learning’ is a term that has historically been used within the former technikon sector for work-based learning.

Gerhardt and Annon (2023: 225) define the meanings of their use of the terms work-based learning (WBL) and work-integrated learning (WIL) as follow:

• Work-Based Learning (WBL): A distinctive pedagogical practice due to the negotiation of learning which follows the needs of the workplace rather than a professional body or subject discipline with learning occurring principally in the workplace and is concerned with the practice of work (Talbot & Lilley, 2014).
• Work-Integrated Learning (WIL): The intersection and engagement of theoretical and practice learning (Cooper et al., 2010, p. xiii), an umbrella term for a model and process of curricular experiential education that formally and intentionally integrates a student’s academic studies within a workplace or practice setting (CEWIL Canada, 2021).

The Canadian body ‘Co-operative Education and Work-Integrated Learning Canada’ (CEWIL Canada) illustrates WIL as follow — take note of the 2nd (**) side note:

The proponents of experiential learning failed to date to make a convincing academic case for work-based learning, say Gerhardt and Annon (2023: 211), and indicate that UNESCO (2014) considers work-based learning as a subset of experience-based learning. The notion of “learning that occurs through undertaking real work, through the production of real goods and services, whether this work is paid or unpaid” is stated, as well as that work-based learning entails “a partnership between universities and employers, delivering learning that meets the needs of the learners and employers, resulting in an accredited qualification”.

Gerhardt and Annon (2023: 220) concludes “that rather than WIL and WBL being incompatible, that WBL, as a different form of WIL, inhabit the space, the tension across disciplines, and in that space, as experts, produce practical knowledge”. They state “that WBL as a different form of WIL, finds meaning and creates meaning in the liminal zones across disciplines” and that one of WBL’s important outcomes is to “produce work-ready professional citizens, through experiential-transformative-experience-based learning (andragogy - person and personnel)”. WBL is a unique pedagogical field, and this uniqueness creates boundaries.

Gerhardt and Annon (2023: 209) raise the question: “Do different pedagogical approaches (modes) justify the conceptual differences?” They comment that “distinction raises questions about power discourses, ‘boundary’ assumptions, and thus impacting professional identity/status”. They (p. 210) indicate that those responsible for work-integrated learning acquire a dual identity, being both an academic and being practical, a pracademic, an insider/outsider having diverse backgrounds and experience, which results in a bricoleur (a French word describing a handyperson who makes use of available tools to complete a task). They elaborate that bricoleur practitioners have a broadened repertoire and a heterogeneous approach, enabling the understand that “the frontier of knowledge work rests in the liminal zones where disciplines collide” (citing Kincheloe & Berry, 2004, p. 80) and the implosion of disciplinarity, or thinking associated with disciplinarity. Those that inhabit the zones of WIL/WBL practitioners “become experts in mastering this space, sharing similar pedagogical approaches, and avoiding the creation of boundaries” (p. 210).

Co-operative Education and Work-Integrated Learning Canada (CEWIL Canada). What is work-integrated learning (WIL)? https://cewilcanada.ca/CEWIL/CEWIL/About-Us/Work-Integrated-Learning.aspx?hkey=ed772be2-00d0-46cd-a5b8-873000a18b41

Council on Higher Education (2014). Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide. https://www.saide.org.za/documents/CHE_-_Distance_Higher_Education.pdf

Council on Higher Education (2011). Work-Integrated Learning: Good Practice Guide. HE Monitor No. 12, August 2011. Pretoria: IeCommunications. Electronically accessible from https://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/Higher_Education_Monitor_12.pdf

Council on Higher Education (2004). Criteria for Institutional Audits. https://www.che.ac.za/publications/criteria/criteria-institutional-audits

Gerhardt, T, & Annon, P. (2023). Towards conceptual clarity: Pedagogical liminality. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 24(2), 209-225. https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_24_2_209_225.pdf

South African Government (2014), Department of Higher Education and Training, Government Notice No 819. Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework. Government Gazette No. 38116, 17 October 2014. https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201410/38116gon819.pdf

Significance of the I in WIL

The noun interrelation [in-ter-ri-ley-shuhn] is defined by Dictionary.com as “reciprocal relation”. It means the “state of things being closely connected to each other and maybe affecting each other”, and “the verb interrelate means to be connected in this way or to cause things to become connected in this way”. The adjective reciprocal originates from the Latin reciproc(us), meaning returning, “given or felt by each toward the other”, expressing a mutual relationship, explains Dictionary.com.

The ‘I’ in work-integrated learning (WIL) pertains to integration of workplace experiences into the learning curriculum. The International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning (IJWIL) defines ‘WIL’ as "an educational approach that uses relevant work-based experiences to allow students to integrate theory with the meaningful practice of work as an intentional component of the curriculum. Defining elements of this educational approach require that students engage in authentic and meaningful work-related tasks, and must involve three stakeholders; the student, the university, and the workplace/community." (emphasis added to highlight the interrelation). Examples of practice given by IJWIL “include off-campus, workplace immersion activities such as work placements, internships, practicum, service learning, and cooperative education (Co-op), and on-campus activities such as work-related projects/competitions, entrepreneurships, student-led enterprise, etc. WIL is related to, but not the same as, the fields of experiential learning, work-based learning, and vocational education and training.”

The Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework (HEQSF) of the Department of Higher Education and Training (South African Government 2014: 17) states that the incorporation of work-integrated learning (WIL) into the curriculum is characteristic of vocational and professionally-oriented qualifications. The HEQSF includes the following higher education qualification descriptors:

• Advanced Certificate programmes (NQF Exit Level 6, p. 28), which typically include a work-integrated learning (WIL) component.
• Diploma programmes (NQF Exit Level 6, p. 29), which typically include an appropriate work-integrated learning (WIL) component; and further states (p. 30): “Candidates who complete the 240-credit Diploma may enter an Advanced Diploma upon successful completion of a work-integrated learning component or a combination of work-integrated learning and coursework equivalent to 120 credits that is approved and accredited by an education provider and/or a professional body and a QC.”
• Master's degree (Professional, NQF Exit Level 9, p. 38): “In some cases, a professional master's degree may be designed in consultation with a professional body or fulfil all or part of the requirements for professional registration or recognition, and may include appropriate forms of work-integrated learning.”

The incorporation of WIL as outlined above requires interrelation and reciprocity. The latter, reflected as the last letter (R) in a mnemonic about the essence of cooperative education, as former Technikon education philosophy: INC-CEL-FAR, standing for IN (industry needs) + CC (continuous consultation) + EL (experiential learning) + FA (faculty abreast) + R (reciprocity) = Cooperative Education.

The HEQSF further, in §34 (p. 17, emphasis added), differentiates various forms of work-integrated learning (WIL), namely:

• simulated learning [also known as simulated work experiences (SWEs)]
• work-directed theoretical learning [WDTL]
• problem-based learning [PBL]
• project-based learning [PjBL]
• workplace-based learning [WPBL] — Three Council on Higher Education publications (CHE: 2004 & 2014) provide criteria with regard to work-based learning (WBL). These criteria do not necessary apply to the other forms of WIL than work-based learning.

In §35 (p. 17, emphasis added) of the HEQSF, it is stated that where the WIL component “takes the form of workplace-based learning, it is the responsibility of institutions that offer programmes requiring credits for such learning to place students into appropriate workplaces” and adds that “such workplace-based learning must be appropriately structured, properly supervised and assessed”. Note that the institution’s role is not limited to ‘placement’ but extends to structured learning, proper supervision (mentoring), and assessment (both formative and summative), which suggest good interrelation (or reciprocity).

The South African Council on Higher Education, as independent statutory body and Quality Council for Higher Education (CHE: n.d.), published (CHE: 2011) a ‘Good Practice Guide’ towards work-integrated learning which deliberated the various modes mentioned above. The CHE recognises that “arrangements for work-based learning will likely be more complex in distance provision due to the more distributed nature of students and the geographic footprint of distance programmes which may even extend beyond national borders” (CHE: 2014, Criterion 15, emphases added), but states that “appropriate arrangements will be needed for placement, mentoring and supervision for a more distributed student body to ensure an equivalent learning experience across a wider range of contexts” and reiterates the “coordination of work-based learning must be done effectively, including adequate infrastructure, effective communication, recording of progress made, monitoring and mentoring”, including the following:

• Learning agreements or contracts implemented through which the student, the higher education institution, the employer (workplace-based learning provider) and mentor negotiate, approve, adhere to agreed roles and responsibilities, and assess the objectives and outcomes of the learning process
• Regular and effective communication taking place and good working relations are maintained between the institution, students, mentors and employers involved
• System (both at the institution and at the place of workplace-based learning) in operation to regularly and systematically monitor and record the progress of each student’s learning experience
• Mentoring system that enables each student to recognise his/her strengths and weaknesses, to develop existing and new abilities, and to gain knowledge of work practices

In addition to these generic statutory requirements, qualification-specific statutory bodies such as the Engineering Council of South Africa (ECSA), Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA), South African Council for Social Service Professions (SACSSP), South African Nursing Council (SANC), and the South African Veterinary Council (SAVC), and vocational bodies do specify additional criteria.

CHE (Council on Higher Education)

Council on Higher Education (n.d.) Legislative and policy mandate. Electronically accessible from https://www.che.ac.za/about-us/legislative-and-policy-mandate

Council on Higher Education (2004). Higher Education Quality Committee. Criteria for Programme Accreditation. Electronically accessible from https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/che2020-c5efd.appspot.com/o/website%2Fyxqlkgy7gwo1.pdf?alt=media&token=c1ea5d6e-2e05-463d-9f2b-bbf92d4b402b

Council on Higher Education (2004). Higher Education Quality Committee. Criteria for Institutional Audits. Electronically accessible from https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/che2020-c5efd.appspot.com/o/website%2Fjh3xgy9ub11.pdf?alt=media&token=aa1b8117-5414-4e70-a363-50dc924a7d42

Council on Higher Education (2004). Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC). Criteria for Institutional Audits. https://www.che.ac.za/publications/criteria/criteria-institutional-audits

Council on Higher Education (2014). Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Programme Accreditation Criteria, pp. 81 – 107. In Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide. Electronically accessible from https://www.saide.org.za/documents/CHE_-_Distance_Higher_Education.pdf

International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning (IJWIL). Home page. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/

Huddling, stand-up gatherings, and after-action reviews

Reflection on experiences plays a significant role in learning. After Action Reviews (AARs), also called a debriefs or huddles, are considered significant ways to not only learn, but also improve. AARs provide participants with the opportunity to reflect on what was supposed to happen, what really happened, what went well, what did not, and what can be derived (learned) from the mistakes and achievements (Reiter-Palmon et al. 2015). Learning from workplace-based learning (WPBL) and internships can be enhanced by creating AAR spaces, stand-up gatherings or huddling opportunities.

A Huddlecraft (2022) ‘re-tweet’ that appeared in my timeline, on 2 December 2022, caught my eye and prompted further exploration:

“A wave of new Huddles for 2023 🌊

Huddles: purposeful peer groups who come together to learn, create or act, in response to a theme that sets them alight 🔥”

“There is no clear standard definition of a ‘huddle’, but it can be described as short, face-to-face [or virtual] meeting held multiple times a day” say Aase et al. (2021: 2). The ‘World of Work Project’ (2019) explain as follow:

Huddles or stand up meetings are short, sharp, focused, daily team meetings. They involve the whole team and take place around a physical or virtual information center. When done well they improve the performance and engagement of those attending. They can take place face to face, or virtually using a platform like Zoom.

Where integration of teamwork is crucial, such as in interprofessional healthcare, daily huddles, for example, in hospitals, between nurses and physicians, have been nurturing effective performance and reducing adverse events say Aase et al. (2021). Huddles offer the opportunity to reflect on the previous day’s workflow and demands, as well as previewing special requirements and preferences pertaining work/cases scheduled for the day ahead. Huddles could also enable reflection on workplace-based learning (WPBL) and internship experiences, thus enhancing the learning.

“A huddle is an unofficial gathering, or informal meeting, of two or more individuals, convened to discuss substantive issues regarding the work of one or more of the participants”, an encounter of focused interaction, explain Quinn and Bunderson (2016, 387). They add that “huddles may offer learning benefits that formal interaction does not, but the informality of huddles may also pose obstacles to learning that are different from the obstacles that emerge in formal interactions. To capitalize on the learning benefits of huddles, huddle participants need to avoid or overcome those obstacles while still leveraging the unique learning benefits of a huddle”. Huddles are seen as particularly productive events for learning, because of the informality, which free participants from structural limitations and cultural inertia. Huddles “allow expertise (rather than position) to guide who talks” and ideally “address issues when they occur and not when they are scheduled to be discussed” (p. 388). Huddles could similarly be introduced into the learning management system (LMS) to facilitate sharing experiences derived from workplace-based learning modules. Academia responsible for workplace-based learning modules are encouraged to consider the literature extracts below and implement those ideas that appear relevant.

The first step, say Astion (2013), in creating a huddle, is to ensure the relevant participants are involved, including senior management. Frequency and time management are key to keeping a huddle focused. Their huddles were restricted to 15 minutes, with limited time allocation for succinct reporting. A magnetic whiteboard with coloured magnets and possibly brief, clarifying statements with a marker pen reflect the state of operations. The colour-coding provides an immediate overview (or dashboard). Huddles since cascaded to lower operational level, and “are fast becoming an important component of daily management”, say Astion (2013). Academia are encouraged to use their discretion to structure huddles with regard to grouping of students and frequency.

Huddles are differentiated from other types of interactive events regarding the dimensions of task focus and formality. In comparison to social interaction, huddles are high on task-focus but low on formality; ceremonies in contrast are high on formality but low on task focus; and casual talk low on both formality and task focus, but the focus high on task content. Huddles are likely to include dimensions such as problem-solving, information-sharing, and collaboration. Whereas meetings typically include these, meetings in contrast with huddles, are both high on formality and task focus. However, huddles may include aspects of formality such as the Japanese Honda plant huddles (called ‘Y-gaya’) “often called by people in formal authority (a high level of social distance) but could also happen spontaneously, on the site of problems, with people speaking based on the relevant knowledge they had rather than based on their position” (p. 389). Huddles further often include some structure such as turn-taking, syntax, and scheduling. However, the fact that huddles are informal, more spontaneous participation could be expected, including more humour, and invoking less authority.

“Huddles are short 5- to 15-minute briefings designed to give staff opportunities to plan daily tasks and roles, stay informed, review events, and share plans to ensure well-coordinated” work performance, say van Bockxmeer (2022: 256). Huddles may serve as conduit for highlighting “concerns, sharing information, celebrating success, and reinforcing common goals”. Huddles further “encourages reflective practice, reorients groups to unseen biases, and builds new strategic capabilities”. Huddles may concentrate on specific themes and high-relevance topics.

There are some challenges associated with huddles indicate van Bockxmeer (2022: 257), such as the duration, retaining meaning for all participants, and discussions derailing. There is “no single approach that best suits all disciplines, rosters, and teams”. Some situations may call for more frequent huddles, whereas taking ‘detailed discussions offline into smaller focus groups’ could be advantageous.

 “A safety huddle is a meeting held among [district nurses] DNs, allied health professionals, specialist nurses, administrative staff, community matrons and healthcare assistants, also known as the wider MDT” [wider multidisciplinary team] say Gray (2020: 446). “Safety huddles were designed and implemented in community nursing in 2016, to ensure all key harms were addressed daily, whereby patient and staff safety could be ensured … The aim of safety huddles is to improve and document clinical handovers within community nursing teams, using a template to evidence the handovers”. The SBAR tool is a “situational briefing tool used to successfully convey patient information to other health professionals in a more succinct manner”—"the SBAR stands for Situation, Background, Assessment and Recommendation” indicate Gray (2020: 447). Academia may effectively make use of the SBAR notion to facilitate reflection of experiences derived from workplace-based learning, namely that each student briefly sketches the situation, provide essential background, give own assessment and present own recommendation. A brief discussion of each such presentation could further enhance learning.

Huddles are commonly used for meetings in many fields, say Cao et al. (2022). The format of their daily virtual operational huddle to monitor key quality metrics, is structured on the common elements of a laboratory huddle reported by Astion (2013), plus “a novel electronic communication application that was interfaced with the laboratory information system” (Cao et al., 2022: 379). At the inception of the huddle, notes were made on a whiteboard, which evolved to a formatted Excel spreadsheet.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, academics at the University of Derby Online Learning (UDOL) “started short online gatherings every morning, which are being referred to as ‘morning huddles’” say Kotera et al. (2020: 239). Microsoft Teams (MS Teams) meetings were scheduled daily from 09h00 to 09h15, and a link sent to the academics “in the Inter-Professional portfolio (encompassing nursing, counselling, social work, and environmental studies), as recurring calendar invites with no set agenda”., however, with the primary purpose had been to support each other’s well-being during isolation. Conversations were friendly, with a relaxed tone, and aimed at inclusivity. The MS Teams chat facility supplemented audio (and where feasible video) interaction, to share information and humour. Many joined before 09h00 for casual conversations, and often continue beyond the 15 minutes. The huddles ended when relevant issues were exhausted, with participants offering each other best wishes for the day. Academia may consider using online huddles in a similar way for students to form stand-up gatherings in order to support one another during dispersed workplace-based learning.

After Action Reviews (AARs) were developed in the 1970s by the US Army, used by the military and para-military teams for decades to learn from experiences in the field, and increasingly used in other contexts. Reiter-Palmon et al. (2015: 323) report “that team effectiveness can be enhanced by 20% when teams conduct AARs”, compared to not conducting AARs and debriefs. Furthermore, “that using trained facilitators improved the effectiveness of AARs significantly compared with those conducted without a facilitator”. For AARs to provide effective learning, three aspects are essential, say Reiter-Palmon et al. (2015: 324), namely:

• (i) Allowing for data verification and feedback, which in turn allow for calibration; as well as allowing for task-related information sharing, contributing to correct approach identification
• (ii) The AAR framework should permit team members opportunity to mindfully and critically reflect (error-friendly learning culture); to grasp why things work (successes) or not (mistakes and near misses); and to challenge implicit assumptions
• (iii) Provide a supportive structure for establishing common goals and action plans to prevent similar re-occurrences

Academia may similarly structure, or scaffold, reflection sessions to enhance workplace-based learning. ‘Scaffold’, as noun, means “a temporary structure for holding workers and materials during the erection, repair, or decoration of a building”, or “any raised framework”, and as verb “to furnish with a scaffold or scaffolding”, or “to support by or place on a scaffold” (Dictionary.com). ‘Framework’, as noun, means “a basic structure, plan, or system, as of concepts, values, customs, or rules”. “In education, scaffolding refers to a variety of instructional techniques used to move students progressively toward stronger understanding”, state the Glossary of Education Reform (2015). It serves as descriptive metaphor of providing successive levels of temporary support, which like physical scaffolding, get erected and incrementally removed when it served its purpose. ‘Instructional scaffolding’ means the processes or support provided to “students in order to enhance learning and aid in the mastery of tasks”, by “systematically building on students’ experiences and knowledge as they are learning” (IRIS Center, 2022).

Aase, I., Tjoflåt, I. & Hjorthaug Urstad, K. (2021). Using the ‘huddle’ to enhance interprofessional teamwork among nursing students through a podcast: a qualitative and exploratory pilot study. (BioMed Central Ltd) BMC Nursing, 20 (article #235). Electronically accessible from https://bmcnurs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12912-021-00747-4

Astion, M. (2013). new model for patient safety, daily laboratory huddles—what a great idea! American Association for Clinical Chemistry (AACC), Clinical Laboratory News. Electronically accessible from https://www.aacc.org/publications/cln/articles/2013/april/psf-huddles

Cao, J., Dowlin, M., West, A., Mutandiro, C., Mpwo, M. & Singh, IR. (2022). A daily operational huddle and a real-time communication application improve efficiency of laboratory processes. Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, 146(3), 379–385. Electronically accessible from https://meridian.allenpress.com/aplm/article/146/3/379/466484/A-Daily-Operational-Huddle-and-a-Real-Time

Dictionary.com. ‘Scaffold’ https://www.dictionary.com/browse/scaffold and ‘Framework’ https://www.dictionary.com/browse/framework

Glossary of Education Reform. (2015). Scaffolding. Great Schools Partnership. Electronically accessible from https://www.edglossary.org/scaffolding/

Gray, T. (2020). Safety huddle in a community nursing setting British Journal of Community Nursing, 25(9), 446-450. Electronically accessible from https://www.britishjournalofcommunitynursing.com/content/professional/safety-huddle-in-a-community-nursing-setting

Huddlecraft (2022). https://www.huddlecraft.com/ Tweet electronically accessible from https://twitter.com/Huddlecraft/status/1598284708034420736

IRIS Center (2022). What Is Instructional Scaffolding? The IRIS Center Peabody College, Vanderbilt University, Nashville. Electronically accessible from https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/sca/cresource/q1/p01/

Kotera, Y., Green, P., Rhodes, C., Williams, A., Chircop, J., Spink, R., Rebecca Rawson, R., & Okere, U. (2020). Dealing With Isolation Using Online Morning Huddles for University Lecturers During Physical Distancing by COVID-19: Field Notes. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 21(4), 238-244. Electronically accessible from https://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/4843/5434

Quinn, R.W. & Bunderson, J.S. (2016). Could We Huddle on This Project? Participant Learning in Newsroom Conversations. Journal of Management, 42(2), 386–418. Electronically accessible from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0149206313484517

Reiter-Palmon, R., Kennel, V. Allen, J.A. Jones, K.J. & Skinner, A.M. (2015). Naturalistic decision making in after-action review meetings: The implementation of and learning from post-fall huddles. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 88(2), 322–340. https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/joop.12084

van Bockxmeer, J. (2022). A reflection on daily huddles in BC primary care teams. British Columbia Medical Journal, 64(6), 256-7. Electronically accessible from https://bcmj.org/articles/reflection-daily-huddles-bc-primary-care-teams

World of Work Project. (2019). Huddles or stand-up meetings: A simple introduction. Electronically accessible from https://worldofwork.io/2019/04/huddles-stand-up-meetings-what-why-and-who/

A taxonomy of undergraduate work-integrated learning practices

The constructed taxonomy (Figure 1 below) is derived from examples and suggestions obtained from four stakeholder groups, say Neall, Cooney and Oppert (2022: 518). The taxonomy maps a range of practices in accordance two axes (or principles for effectiveness); namely vertically ‘task authenticity’ (how closely a task resembles professional level challenges) and horizontally ‘proximity to industry’ (how closely the context resembles a professional environment). The mapped practices may “be conducted virtually, practically and on an individual or group level depending on the resources available”. The four main stakeholder groups include (a) psychology graduates, (b) industry leaders, (c) higher education work-integrated learning staff, and (d) psychology accreditation council staff. The aim of the research had been to better support undergraduate psychology students to successfully enter into meaningful employment.

A cohort of Australian psychology graduates were struggling to make successful transitions to field-specific employment. Although there exists a growing demand for mental health/psychological support, there is also a deficit of appropriately trained professionals. These psychology graduates are a unique allied health cohort in that the undergraduate programme includes understanding of human physical and emotional behaviour and cognition. Graduates may enter a wide range of industry sectors, such as promotion of health, marketing, human resources, coaching, policy making, and community services. However, graduates often struggle to gain meaningful employment. Neall, Cooney and Oppert (2022: 509) believe that a “systematic integration of authentic WIL [work-integrated learning] into undergraduate psychology degrees may offset this lack of industry exposure”. They indicate that WIL has proven to develop of a range of professional and personal outcomes, including increased employability and work readiness through theory-to-practice application and professional skill development, among others.

Work-integrated learning (WIL) encapsulates a wide range of practice-based and experiential learning models and modes, such as work-based learning, project-based work, service learning, volunteering, internships, clinical placements, simulations, fieldwork, and practicums. The quality of WIL is dependent on robust industry partnerships, adequate preparation, active and authentic engagement, sound supervision, feedback, debriefing of students in order to improve work readiness in students.

Neall, A.M., Cooney, O. & Oppert, M.L. (2022). Enhancing employment outcomes for psychology graduates: Developing a taxonomy of work-integrated learning. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 23(4), 509-525. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_23_4_509_525.pdf

Internships, valuable CV-polishing learning or exploitation?

“No universally accepted definition of an internship” exists, indicates Stewart (2021: 17-18), and citing The Economist (2014), saying it is “a spell of CV-burnishing work experience”. The terminology (internship), in use for more than a century, originated in medical education, where it denotes a postgraduate period of clinical training of doctors under supervision, but also spread across many other professions and occupational fields to provide knowledge and skills in the workplace. Internships may serve “to satisfy the requirements of education or training courses”; or offered by employment service providers to job seekers as part a labour-market programme; or by established business to offer a taste of the nature of work in a particular profession, or to test out applicants. However, job seekers may further initiate internships in order to supplement résumés, or to gain contacts. Both known as ‘open-market’ internships. Maake-Malatji (2021: 137) indicate that in “South Africa ‘low- or no-pay “creative internships” are proliferating at an astonishing rate”.

Maake-Malatji (2021: 132) indicates that the terms ‘intern’ and ‘internship’ are defined in various ways, frequently depending on the field. A person “employed at an entry-level position in an organisation in a structured programme to gain practical experience in a particular occupation or profession” is usually deemed an ‘intern’ he says, and cites Stellenbosch University’s guidelines “which describe an internship as a planned, structured and managed programme that provides work experience for an agreed period of time”. An alternative description of an internship, he says, is a “career specific work experience that one undertakes during/after one’s studies in order to gain the practical experience required to operate and make a positive contribution with respect to the career path one eventually pursues”.

Stewart, Owens, O'Higgins and Hewitt (2021: 2) cites Ross Perlin (2012), who published ‘Intern nation: how to earn nothing and learn little in the brave new economy’ and who stated “a global fact of life [is that] internships are … a significant source of cheap, flexible white-collar labor and a major steppingstone to affluence and professional success. They grant access to those who can afford them, and block further progress for those who cannot”. Maake-Malatji (2021: 141) says that in South African context are several higher education institutions, “based on their recognition within the national and international spheres, gain leverage for their graduates in the world of work”, contributing to inequality and exclusion for students from an underprivileged institutions. The struggle for resources by underprivileged institutions is prevalent, and says “for black graduates, education is a tool to do away with poverty”.

Stewart et al. (2021: 2) observe that little has changed during the past decade; that “internships have become even more firmly entrenched in the transition from education to work”; and that it “is still not attracting the attention it deserves” as forms of ‘work-based learning’ (p. 5). Stewart et al. (2021: 3) qualify what they mean by the term ‘internship’, or ‘traineeship’ as sometimes called in Europe, “to be any arrangement for the performance of work within a business or organization which is primarily intended to provide experience, skills and/or contacts that will help the worker obtain employment or other work opportunities in the future”. They caution that the definition is far from exact and that “it does not matter whether the internship is undertaken during, after or as part of a formal scheme of education, training or government assistance”. They, however, “distinguish an internship from an apprenticeship, on the basis that the latter seeks in a more structured (if not always formal) way to provide all the skills needed to practise a particular trade or profession”.

Whereas the traditional apprenticeship model “has always been premised on the idea of learning a particular trade or craft, while performing [paid] work to practise what has been learnt and to hone the skills involved”, in recent decades there “has been the steady decoupling of training from paid employment” observe Stewart et al. (2021: 3-4). Furthermore, the prevailing modern form of apprenticeship (and the contemporary ‘learnership’ in South Africa) “typically requires time release from work to attend classes at an educational institution”, “however, on-the-job instruction still remains an integral element of these schemes” explain Stewart et al. (2021: 3). Regardless of what called, “licensing or accreditation schemes often require a period of time to be spent working under the supervision of experienced practitioners” (p. 4).

Several drivers and pressures are causing the disconnecting of training from paid employment, say Stewart et al. (2021: 5). The volatility of global markets on the one hand, and pressure on enterprises to accomplish adequate returns to shareholders on the other, result in reduced long-term investment in training. ‘Grow your own timber’ in-house entry-level training programmes are far less prevalent. It is evident that the costs of training significantly shifted from business to the job seeker, the employee and the state. Often funds for training and education are limited to recovery of Skills Development Levy expenditure.

The pedagogical belief of further and higher education institutions that certain knowledge, and in particular skills, are best acquired through real-life experiences, is contributing to growth of need for internships, alternatively termed ‘work-integrated (or experiential) learning’, opportunities. There is further increasingly a demand for graduates who are ‘work ready’, say Stewart et al. (2021: 5). These two drivers towards, however, are impeded by limited paid-learning opportunities and constraints with regard to state funding made available through Sectoral Education & Training Authorities (SETAs) by means of discretionary grants.

Maake-Malatji, M.I. (2021). The law and regulation of internships in South Africa. . In Stewart, A., Owens, R., O'Higgins, N. & Hewitt, A. (2021). Internships, Employability and the Search for Decent Work Experience, Ch. 8, 130-144. Electronically accessible from https://doi.org/10.4337/9781800885042

Stewart, A. (2021). The nature and prevalence of internships. In Stewart, A., Owens, R., O'Higgins, N. & Hewitt, A. (2021). Internships, Employability and the Search for Decent Work Experience, Ch. 2, 17-33. Electronically accessible from https://doi.org/10.4337/9781800885042

Stewart, A., Owens, R., O'Higgins, N. & Hewitt, A. (2021). Internships: A policy and regulatory challenge. In Stewart, A., Owens, R., O'Higgins, N. & Hewitt, A. (2021). Internships, Employability and the Search for Decent Work Experience, Ch. 1, 2-16. Electronically accessible from https://doi.org/10.4337/9781800885042

A community is required for workplace-based learning (‘it takes a community to offer’)

‘It Takes a Village’ by Jane Cowen-Fletcher (1994) is a colourfully illustrated story that portrays a proverb attributed to West Africa, namely ‘it takes a village to raise a child’.

Yemi's mother asks her to care for her younger brother and the girl is delighted at the prospect of taking on a grown-up task. The three of them set out to the village market [in Benin, West Africa], where Mama will sell mangoes. Yemi soon loses Kokou, but instead of the terrible things she imagines happening to him, the toddler is lovingly cared for by all of the adults he meets-he is fed, given something to drink, played with, and allowed to nap. Yemi discovers that caring neighbours have been watching them both all along.

The proverb ‘it takes a village’ means an entire community of people is needed to interact positively with children for those children to grow up in a safe and healthy environment. The origins of the proverb has been researched, but not pinpointed. It is believed to embody the spirit of several African cultures, for example (Wikipedia):

• In Lunyoro (Bunyoro) there is a proverb that says “Omwana takulila nju emoi,” whose literal translation is “A child does not grow up only in a single home.”
• In Kihaya (Bahaya) there is a saying, “Omwana taba womoi,” which translates as “A child belongs not to one parent or home.”
• Kijita (Wajita) has the proverb, “Omwana ni wa bhone,” meaning regardless of a child's biological parents, its upbringing belongs to the community.
• In Swahili, the proverb “Asiye funzwa na mamae hufunzwa na ulimwengu” means roughly the same: "Whomsoever is not taught by the mother will be taught with the world."

The notion ‘it takes a village’ has subsequently been adopted by several authors, applied to a multitude of scenarios, and other books pubished. The definition of work-integrated learning (WIL) of the Canadian body for Co-operative Education and Work-integrated Learning (CEWIL) cited by Nielsen, Livernoche and Ramji (2022: 139) accurately captures the essence of workplace-based learning (WPBL, as form of WIL). CEWIL defines WIL as “a model and process of curricular experiential education which formally and intentionally integrates a student's academic studies within a workplace or practice setting. WIL experiences include an engaged partnership of at least: an academic institution, a host organization and a student”. The origins of WIL (and cooperative education) emphasised the close collaboration of academic institutions with the relevant community of practice, within the relevant industry that is involved, with regard to the necessary workplace experiences that form part of the curriculum. In addition, workplace mentoring by experienced practitioners, play a significant role in WPBL.

The Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework (HEQSF) of the Department of Higher Education and Training (South African Government, 2014), which indicates that the incorporation of work-integrated learning (WIL) into the curriculum is characteristic of vocational and professionally-oriented qualifications. The HEQSF, §35 (p. 17, emphases added) states that where the WIL component “takes the form of workplace-based learning, it is the responsibility of institutions that offer programmes requiring credits for such learning to place students into appropriate workplaces” and add that “such workplace-based learning must be appropriately structured, properly supervised and assessed”.

However, work-integrated learning need not necessary involve actual work. The HEQSF differentiates, in §34 (p. 17), various forms of work-integrated learning (WIL), namely:

• simulated learning [also known as simulated work experiences (SWEs)]
• work-directed theoretical learning [WDTL]
• problem-based learning [PBL]
• project-based learning [PjBL]
• workplace-based learning [WPBL] — Three Council on Higher Education publications (CHE: 2004a, 2004b & 2014) provide criteria with regard to work-based learning (WBL)

The South African Council on Higher Education, as independent statutory body and Quality Council for Higher Education (CHE: n.d.), published (CHE: 2011) a ‘Good Practice Guide’ towards work-integrated learning which deliberated the various modes mentioned above. The CHE (2014, Criterion 15, emphases added) recognises that ‘it takes a village’, by stating that “appropriate arrangements will be needed for placement, mentoring and supervision” and reiterates the “coordination of work-based learning must be done effectively, including adequate infrastructure, effective communication, recording of progress made, monitoring and mentoring”, plus the following:

• Learning agreements or contracts implemented through which the student, the higher education institution, the employer (workplace-based learning provider) and mentor negotiate, approve, adhere to agreed roles and responsibilities, and assess the objectives and outcomes of the learning process
• Regular and effective communication taking place and good working relations are maintained between the institution, students, mentors and employers involved
• System (both at the institution and at the place of workplace-based learning in operation to regularly and systematically monitor and record the progress of each student’s learning experience
• Mentoring system that enables each student to recognise his/her strengths and weaknesses, to develop existing and new abilities, and to gain knowledge of work practices

Nielsen et al. (2022: 139-140) indicate “a range of WIL programs: co-operative education (co-op), internships, entrepreneurships, apprenticeships, service learning, applied research projects, mandatory professional practicum/clinical placement, field placement, and work experience”; and add that “strategic WIL placements in partnership with Indigenous groups also offer opportunities for capacity-building, cultural revitalization, and community development”.

CHE (Council on Higher Education)

Cowen-Fletcher, J. (1994). It Takes a Village. Scholastic Press. [Information about accessible from https://janecowen-fletcher.com/it-takes-a-village]

Council on Higher Education (n.d.) Legislative and policy mandate. Electronically accessible from https://www.che.ac.za/about-us/legislative-and-policy-mandate

Council on Higher Education (2004a). Higher Education Quality Committee. Criteria for Programme Accreditation. Electronically accessible from https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/che2020-c5efd.appspot.com/o/website%2Fyxqlkgy7gwo1.pdf?alt=media&token=c1ea5d6e-2e05-463d-9f2b-bbf92d4b402b

Council on Higher Education (2004b). Higher Education Quality Committee. Criteria for Institutional Audits. Electronically accessible from https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/che2020-c5efd.appspot.com/o/website%2Fjh3xgy9ub11.pdf?alt=media&token=aa1b8117-5414-4e70-a363-50dc924a7d42

Council on Higher Education (2011). Work-Integrated Learning: Good Practice Guide. HE Monitor No. 12, August 2011. Pretoria: IeCommunications. Electronically accessible from https://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/Higher_Education_Monitor_12.pdf

Council on Higher Education (2014). Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Programme Accreditation Criteria, pp. 81 – 107. In Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide. Electronically accessible from https://www.saide.org.za/documents/CHE_-_Distance_Higher_Education.pdf

Nielsen, J., Livernoche, R. & Ramji, K. (2022). The Indigenous Work-integrated Learning Resource Hub: A needs-based approach to addressing barriers and opportunities for Indigenous students. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 23(2), 139-152. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_23_2_139_152.pdf

South African Government (2014), Department of Higher Education and Training, Government Notice No 819. Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework. Government Gazette No. 38116, 17 October 2014. Electronically accessible from https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201410/38116gon819.pdf

Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/It_takes_a_village

A template for good practice of work integrated learning (WIL) in programmes

In a research report Martin, Rees, and Edwards (2011a: 6) present a template of key good practices, for each of the six common areas, of in work integrated learning (WIL), outlined and schematically (2011b: 3) as follow:

1. Organisation set-up

1. Placement requirements and support
2. Placement selection and location
3. Risk management issues

2. Student preparation

1. Pre-requisites and theoretical basis
2. Careers interview skills and CV preparation
3. Readiness for practice

3. Supervision

1. On campus academic supervisor and mentor
2. Work place employer
3. Work place university staff

4. Competencies

1. Self-confidence
2. Communication and people skills
3. Teamwork
4. Professional standards

5. Pedagogies

1. Scenario based learning and project work
2. Theory lectures and labs
3. Oral presentations

6. Assessment

1. Learning contract
2. Reflective journal
3. Final report
4. Industry based competency checks
5. Oral presentations

Martin et al. (2011a: 9) state that “there are specific components, which when melded together, define an optimal WIL activity through the tripartite partnership between the employer, the teacher, and the student”, and if “done well, WIL benefits each stakeholder within the tripartite relationship”.

Martin et al. detail (2011a: 12-18, 2011b: 4-5) several aspects concerning organisational set-up, from precursors that influence what is done; to placement selection and location considerations; industry networks as key feature; and risk management issues. They address placement requirements and support; the importance of “developing and maintaining ongoing good relationships with industry” (p. 17) and network support; support required by students while in the field; resources for supporting workplace supervisors (or mentors); as well as administrative and online support needed.

Student preparation is an important aspect, indicate Martin et al. (2011a: 19-21, 2011b: 6-7). It is of foundational importance to ensure students demonstrate both the theoretical knowledge and skills for successful placement experiences; as well as in some instances scaffolding during early work experience. Guidance with CV preparation, interview skills and techniques, and also provision of career and employment services are of significance. Students should be properly prepared in order to be ready for practice experiences. Student resources should provide students with clear expectations.

Martin et al. (2011a: 22-23, 2011b: 8-9) emphasise the importance of formal supervision (and mentoring) with regard to teaching and learning. The learning goals and expectations must be clarified.

Competencies, say Martin et al. (2011a: 24-27, 2011b: 10-11) “are the qualities or extent to which the students develop the necessary ability or knowledge to do something successfully”. The five mentioned competence areas are discussed.

Martin et al. (2011a: 28-31, 2011b: 12-13) outline a number of pedagogies involved, such as (i) mentoring, which requires close supervision and is both time consuming and resource intensive; (ii) oral presentations providing opportunities to reflect on action; (iii) scenario based learning (SBL), which is “based on the concept of situated cognition, which is the idea that knowledge cannot be fully understood independent of its context” and therefore WIL within specific contexts, situations or social frameworks; (iv) the theory taught through lectures and laboratories should be purposefully aligned to the learning outcomes of the programme, and is distinct from experiential learning; (v) and project work, which “is a particular strength of the WIL approach”.

“Informal formative approaches [of assessment] could include the use of technologies such as emails, blogs or other e-journals. More formal [assessment] approaches are the use of a reflective journal and supervisor/mentor, as part of the overall course assessment plan.” say Martin et al. (2011a: 32-36, 2011b: 14-15) and elaborate on a number. The learning contract not only describes the work activities and project focus prepared by the student and negotiated with the host organisation (where after approved by the academic supervisor), but also the bases for assessment. The reflective journal is not meant to merely capture the tasks performed by the student, but also reflections on all the activities throughout the practicum experience. It ought to include revisiting of feelings, re-evaluation of experiences, linking of theory to practice, and planning of future action. “A common feature of the assessment of WIL is the submission of a final report”, say Martin et al. (2011a: 34), which is often orally presented to a panel. It incorporates all formative reflection and summative outcomes of the overall experience; and is either signed off by the workplace supervisor, or in some cases a formal report required. Monitoring of the experiential learning students undergo and industry based competency checks form part of good practice. Some professionally and statutory accredited programmes require specific competency based assessment.

Martin et al. (2011a: 37, 2011b: 16) conclude with a number of further considerations deemed important for resourcing effective WIL programmes.

Martin, A., Rees, M., & Edwards, M. (2011a). Work integrated learning, a template for good practice: supervisors’ reflections. An Ako Aotearoa publication. Electronically accessible from: https://ako.ac.nz/assets/Knowledge-centre/RHPF-c43-Work-Integrated-Learning/RESEARCH-REPORT-Work-Integrated-Learning-A-Template-for-Good-Practice-Supervisors-Reflections.pdf

Martin, A., Rees, M., & Edwards, M. (2011b). Work integrated learning, a template for good practice. Ako Aotearoa. Electronically accessible from: https://ako.ac.nz/assets/Knowledge-centre/RHPF-c43-Work-Integrated-Learning/RESOURCE-Work-Integrated-Learning-A-Template-for-Good-Practice.pdf (booklet)

Making use of Moodle to interact with workplace learning supervisors or mentors

Students that are completing prerequisite workplace-based learning as part of the curriculum of their qualification are generally required to be supervised (or mentored) by suitably qualified (and often registered) practitioners. The Council on Higher Education (n.d.), as independent statutory body, states criterion 15 pertaining ‘coordination of work-based learning’ (2014: 104), among others, that “regular and effective communication takes place between the institution, students, mentors and employers involved in work-based learning [and that] good working relations are maintained between the various parties involved”. Moodle is proposed as potential means towards this end.

Hay and Dale (2014) report that Massey University, in New Zealand, introduced Moodle in 2009 in order to provide students with an internet-based, engaging, rich-media environment that is innovative, flexible and relevant. Social Work students, among others, are required to undertake practicums with social service agencies with the aim of meeting the relevant learning outcomes. During such practicum students are supervised and supported by registered social workers. However, such practitioners may have had zero or minimal training for the role as supervisor; neither does standards for accreditation as field educators exist; nor are there requirements of training prior to becoming a field educator, supervisor, or mentor. Although training is encouraged, workload commitments and/or geographical location may hamper. Such individuals may well lack in confidence, have specialized knowledge or demonstrate pedagogical skills. Practicum, or workplace learning materials include guidelines to supervisors, the learning outcomes, as well as monitoring and assessment templates, but field educators are largely isolated from the university.

Based on past experience of positive relationships between the university and workplace sites, including clear understandings of expectations, resulting more likely in quality practicums; the use of online technologies, more specifically Moodle, had been considered. In 2011 a meta-Moodle site had been developed at Massey University. Workplace supervisors were invited and had to accept in order to access Moodle. Asynchronous modes of communication were utilised. Any participant may send a message or initiate a discussion with other users of the Moodle site. Articles, written materials relevant to the workplace learning context, recorded audio resources, podcasts, and relevant university documentation are made accessible. In addition to serve as news forum, Moodle is also used as forum to provide feedback and encouragement to field supervisors; as well as connecting with each other with the view of developing a community of practice, sharing ideas and strategies. Moodle facilitates on-line learning, developing of insights, broadening of professional perspectives, and strengthening the profession.

The lead author of the article responded to an enquiry, affirming that “Moodle is now the primary learning management system at Massey” University. She “currently teach only distance/extramural courses and so Moodle is [her] only form of communication with [her] students. This works well as [her] messages go straight into their email and they can respond to [her] either by email or in the Moodle site.” However, “The field education site [they] discussed in the article is now not being used. Over time [they] had less and less interest in it from field educators (supervisors) in the placement agencies. While it was easy to access many organisations now do a lot of online training and have good online professional development repositories and so [she] think field educators didn’t necessarily want or feel the need to go into another one. Instead, [they] email every field educator a digital handbook based on frequently asked questions when they agree to take on a placement student.” They further “talk with them by phone and [they] offer training for them in different parts of NZ.”

Council on Higher Education (2014). Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Programme Accreditation Criteria, pp. 81 – 107, Criterion 15, p. 104. In Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide. Electronically accessible from https://www.saide.org.za/documents/CHE_-_Distance_Higher_Education.pdf

Council on Higher Education (n.d.). Legislative and policy mandate. https://www.che.ac.za/about-us/legislative-and-policy-mandate

Hay, K. & Dale, M. (2014). Moving through Moodle: Using e-technology to enhance social work field education. Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 15(2), 119-128. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/APJCE_15_2_119_128.pdf.

Developing a meta-Moodle-site for supervisors of workplace-based experiential learning

“The development of a meta-[Moodle]-site for” the workplace-based learning part of work-integrated learning“ enables greater connections between the university and the” workplace supervisors/mentors, found Hay and Dale (2014: 119).

The work-integrated learning (WIL) refers “to a broad range of experience-based education models and curriculum approaches where students engage with industry and community organizations, for example, service learning, work-based learning, community engagement, cooperative education … as well as internships, teacher practicums, clinical placements, engineering sandwich courses, virtual projects, simulations, fieldwork etc.” (Winchester-Seeto et al, 2016: 101). “WIL enables professional development in experiential learning environments.” say Richardson et al. (2013: 28) and “The WIL experience requires students to apply discipline knowledge gained in the traditional university environment to a work context.” (p. 29). However, they say that there is a “lack of understanding of the nature of learning in the WIL environment – what is being learnt and how. Learning in the workplace is influenced by personal, interpersonal, institutional, social and historical factors”. Richardson et al. (2013: 29) emphasise “the importance of preparing industry supervisors for their role”. “Universities often spend considerable resources in developing relationships with employers but fewer resources in ensuring that these employers are equipped and confident in fulfilling their role.” they observe.

The learning spaces differ. Richardson et al. (2013: 27, emphasis added) indicate that “Traditionally, in disciplines that have strong vocational intent such as medicine, accounting, law and architecture, universities have taught the necessary discipline content, while professional practical skills have typically been taught on the job in the graduates’ capacity as trainees within hospitals, law firms, government departments and accountancy firms. Involvement of employers in the training of graduates into the practices of work has been the norm.” The term host supervisor is often “used to refer to anyone responsible for supervising the experience of students who are undertaking a placement or other WIL activity, and includes workplace supervisor, mentor, preceptor and guide.” Say Winchester-Seeto et al (2016: 101). “The value of industry supervisors [Descriptors for industry supervisors include industry mentors, industry supervisors, industry advisors and workplace supervisors.] in providing feedback to students in situ has been found to be significant in facilitating students’ professional development (Footnote from text inserted, Richardson et al., 2013: 29). “Supervision of students, both by the university and at the placement site, is acknowledged as playing a critical role in Work Integrated Learning (WIL) programs … and is a key factor underpinning their success” say Winchester-Seeto el at (2016: 101).

Skinner et al (2021: 89) emphasise the “importance of a coordinated approach, with clear guidelines to ensure supervisors and students have a shared understanding”; as well as “structured and organized placements, with a coordinated approach and clear guidelines for all stakeholders as to the aim and focus of the placement” (p. 92). The Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework (South African Government, 2014: 17) specifies that “workplace-based learning must be appropriately structured, properly supervised and assessed”. Two of the four criteria stated by the Council on Higher Education (2014: 104), with regard to work-based learning, include (i) regular and effective communication and good working relations; and (ii) a ‘mentoring system’. Hay and Dale (2014: 120) remark “From experience, positive relationships between the university and agencies as well as clear expectations and understanding of the field educator role are more likely to ensure quality practicum”. “In practicum, students are, in the main, supervised and supported by a registered” practitioner (Hay & Dale, 2014: 119).

Field educators communicate directly with academic staff during the planning stage of the practicum, they are visited approximately mid-way through the practicum by an academic staff member, and they may choose to phone or email staff if any concerns arise. Prior to the practicum the field educators also receive a handbook which covers the key requirements and expectations of the practicum, the templates for the assessment components and material on supervision. Apart from these contacts the field educator is largely isolated from the university. (Hay & Dale, 2014: 120).

Traditionally, the learning pack of WIL modules included a mentor guide, a set of guidelines aimed at equipping the workplace supervisor for her/his role. The content may vary, but essentially meant to outline what the student’s learning outcomes are, what exposure the student requires, what the supervisor need to assess, etc. “Given the time and resource constraints on both academic and” workplace supervisors, Massey University, New Zealand, which already made use of Moodle, questioned “whether online technologies, and specifically Moodle, can be used more effectively for the benefit of” workplace supervisors, reflect Hay and Dale (2014: 120).

“Moodle is an acronym of Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment. It is an internet-based e-learning environment used for educational purposes. As an online environment it is intended to be connected, innovative, flexible and relevant to” students (Hay & Dale, 2014: 119).

The work-integrated learning “Moodle site that had initially been established for practicum [WIL] students was redeveloped so that it was more relevant and accessible to” supervisors (workplace mentors), indicate Hay and Dale (2014: 120). Access is offered to all supervisors, although acceptance of this invitation is required. Asynchronous modes of communication are utilized, including a news forum wherein any participant in Moodle can send messages, and initiate discussions with other users of the site. Articles and written materials relevant to workplace learning, as well as audio recorded resources or podcasts on facets of relevant professional or vocational practice are provided by academic staff.

Hay and Dale (2014: 120) further remark that Moodle has the potential to be used as forum to provide feedback and encouragement to workplace supervisors as students progress through WIL. Workplace supervisors can connect with one another thus developing a community of practice, where strategies can be shared. Such collaboration broadens professional perspectives and nurture development of insights. Academic staff made use of Moodle to guide workplace supervisors with regard to their “often challenging roles as educator, coach, mentor, supervisor and assessor”, and thus enhancing quality.

Council on Higher Education (2014). Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Programme Accreditation Criteria, pp. 81 – 107, Criterion 15, p. 104. In Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide. Electronically accessible from https://www.saide.org.za/documents/CHE_-_Distance_Higher_Education.pdf

Hay, K. & Dale, M. (2014). Moving through Moodle: Using e-technology to enhance social work field education. Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 15(2), 119-128. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/APJCE_15_2_119_128.pdf.

Richardson, J., Jackling, B., Henschke, K. & Tempone, I. (2013). Developing a collaborative model of industry feedback for work placement of business students. Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 14(1), 27-43. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/APJCE_14_1_27_43.pdf.

Skinner, K., Simpson, M., Patton, N. & Robson, K. (2021). Enablers and barriers to interprofessional work-integrated learning placements: A qualitative study of rural and regional allied health supervisors' perceptions. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 22(1), 83-96. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_22_1_83_96.pdf.

South African Government (2014), Department of Higher Education and Training, Government Notice No 819. Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework (HEQSF). Government Gazette No. 38116, 17 October 2014 — §35, p. 17. Electronically accessible from https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201410/38116gon819.pdf.

Winchester-Seeto, T., Rowe, A. & Mackaway, J. (2016). Sharing the load: Understanding the roles of academics and host supervisors in work-integrated learning. Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 17(2), 101-118. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/APJCE_17_2_101_118.pdf.

What competences; which experiences; and feasibility?

For teaching and learning, the central—“constituting something from which other related things proceed or upon which they depend”—issue, is the expected/stated outcomes (such as knowledge, skills, and attitudes), and/or competencies.

Once the expected outcomes and/or competencies are known, careful consideration must be given to which learning experiences are most likely to accomplish those; and the feasibility of providing such.

Certain learning is best acquired (or accomplished) through contextual experience/s, application, and reflection. A number of conditions are of significance pertaining contextual experiences, such as:

• The degree of authenticity (or genuineness) for learning that is provided
• The degree of fidelity (or proximity) with regard to reality
• The extent of interactivity (and immersivity) made feasible

The extent to which the occupational-field/the profession/the community-of-practice/vocational representatives were involved in determining the learning outcomes; and in particular the expression of willingness to support the teaching, by providing real-life learning opportunities, is a major deciding factor. Without adequate support, and the provision of access to contextual learning experiences, the options are reduced; and workplace-learning placements become a substantial challenge.

Workplace/clinical-field/professional/vocational realities, however, do not always permit actual exposure. This could be due to for example security/confidentiality/safety/sensitivity. In such circumstances, the realities could be simulated in a variety of ways in order to provide alternative experiences with the objective of achieving the stated learning outcomes.

The aforesaid highlight some of the teaching-design considerations, however, there are many other issues to consider, and a range of options and possibilities. Some of the potential modes of teaching include:

• Work-integrated/workplace/work-based learning, clinical training/professional practice/placement
• Project- and problem-based learning, work-based project, and live projects
• Case-based learning, case studies, case methods, life course/experience, and story telling
• Studio-based learning, studio-work, studios, and problem solving
• Service learning, community engagement, and role plays
• Virtual learning environments, virtual reality, and a range of potential simulations
• Non-placement work-integrated learning
• Work-directed theoretical learning, and projects

‘The learning portfolio’ as means to scaffold reflection

Reflective learning is a difficult endeavour, found Pereira, Parente and da Silva (2016: 614), who define reflection as “deliberate thinking about oneself as a practitioner with the aim of improving [own] understanding and practices”. Reflection, is important, because it is recognised as “the most powerful driving force for self-monitored, conscious and conscientious learning and doing” (p. 215).

“Language is widely recognized as an inescapable mediating tool for learning” in that it renders tangible and therefore monitorable for the learner, say Pereira, Parente and da Silva (2016: 615), who suggest “guided portfolio writing as a form of scaffolding reflective learning”. However, portfolio writing is not straightforward, but a matter of dispute, because portfolios were originally “essentially developed for performance-based assessment” (p. 217). They emphasise a need for “explicitness of the aims and instructions” of ‘the learning portfolio’ by asking students:

1. “to analytically report one task they considered to be representative of” each learning experience (referred to as ‘preliminary reflections’); and
2. “to write a synthesis of the information they had learned and to plan, analyse and critically report a practical experience”; and finally
3. “to think about the contents and experiences and their usefulness in updating their practical knowledge” by making use of the ‘preliminary reflections’

Pereira, Parente and da Silva (2016: 619) illustrate the portfolio writing process for pre-school teacher scaffolded reflective learning, during in-serive contexts, as in Figure 1. They further emphasise that students should “actively construct, identify and monitor their own learning”.

Pereira, I.S.P., Parente, M.C.C. & da Silva, C.V. (2016). Guided portfolio writing as a scaffold for reflective learning in in-service contexts: a case study. Teacher Development, an international journal of teachers' professional development, 20(5), 614-630. Electronically accessible from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13664530.2016.1185029

Placement and non-placement work-integrated learning (NPWIL)

Through this blogpost I attempt to provide some guidance regarding the scope of placement and non-placement forms of work-integrated learning (WIL).

Work-integrated learning (WIL) is generally associated with placements, whereby students spend periods of time in the workplace. However, in recent years, many innovations–without placement time–with regard to integrating work practices into teaching and learning occurred. There has been “evidence to suggest universities were exploring and experimenting with new ways” and an uptake of non-placement WIL activities, “to include a range of simulated, virtual, authentic and industry-based activities” say Dean, Eady and Yanamandram (2020: 1-2). The global Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic escalated experiments, which were further leveraged through technological platforms, and described by some as a learning revolution. It most certainly served as impetus for questioning the dominant modes of WIL, and extending interest into alternative WIL models. Examples of non-placement WIL (NPWIL) “may include (but not limited to) authentic industry projects, simulations, field work, creative studio work, digitally enabled or virtual WIL and other NPWIL experiences”.

Whereas my employer opted about a decade ago to use experiential learning as umbrella term, differentiating WIL and simulated work experiences (SWEs), others broadened the range of WIL to include forms of non-placement. Dean, Yanamandram, Eady, Moroney, O'Donnell, and Glover-Chambers (2020) indicate that over the last decade WIL has moved away from the narrow conception of ‘work placements’ to a much broader and widening lens. An earlier typology of WIL entails three models, namely professional programmes, service learning and cooperative education; where students reside in different ‘workplaces’. Another typology delineates different types of WIL experiences, based on ‘on-site’ activities, namely systematic training (e.g., apprenticeships); the structured work experience (e.g., field experience, mandatory professional practice, co-op and internships); and institutional partnerships (e.g., applied projects, service learning). Dean, et al. (2020) indicate that boundaries with regard to WIL are often unclear because of complexities of multiple variables and understandings. They convey five innovative models that are growing, given the advancements in technology, globalisation and creativity, including micro-placements, online projects or placements, competitions such as hackathons, incubators or start-ups and consulting.

Dean, Yanamandram et al. (2020) caution against the use of WIL ‘type’ nomenclature for categorisation, because of variations in terminology, yet relatively similar definitions. They support the notion of classification based on the defining features of WIL rather than specific modes or models of WIL. Dean, Yanamandram et al. (2020) cite a typology by Kaider, Hains-Wesson and Young (2017: 158), comprising a two dimensional grid, namely authenticity vertically and proximity horizontally, depicted in my blogpost ‘Evolving work-integrated learning typologies and frameworks’.

The authenticity axis portrays the learning activity, and the assessment thereof, with regard to the extend students work on problems, processes and projects that they may encounter in the future workplace, and to what extend artefacts that students need to produce would reflect the practice. The proximity axis represents the degree of closeness of learning experiences to real workplaces or practice contexts, and the degree of direct interaction with industry practitioners or community members on work related activities. Kaider et al. (2017) overlaid their grid with exemplars of activities that could take place across three different stages of university education. However Dean, Yanamandram et al. (2020) find this problematic and present both the Universities Australia typology based on the delivery of WIL activities, and the University of Wollongong, Australia, university-wide approach of a WIL Curriculum Classification (WILCC) Framework. Informed by all these, I propose a three-dimensional-kind of typology (or framework), based on Kaider et al. (2017: 159) authenticity-proximity axes, but overlaid by my three broad categories I propose, namely: (a) foundational, (b) applied, and (c) comprehensive, depicted in the diagram below.

Kaider et al. (2017) do not include a grouping for both low-authenticity and low-proximity, because they do not regard such means of teaching and learning as WIL.

Foundational WIL as ‘category’

The four groupings serve as examples of credit-bearing WIL which require of students to observe, explore, analyse or reflect on the application of theory in practice. Activities should be purposefully designed to provide for career development learning, developing of identities, and to guide the learning and reflection of students about the discipline, concepts, skills, ethics and aptitudes. Foundational relates to groundwork or laying the basis for future practice.

Applied WIL as ‘category’

These three groupings also serve as examples of credit-bearing WIL which generally require of students, or provide students opportunities to practise, while also critically reflect while directly engaging in work practices. Applied WIL activities compliment theoretical learning and should be purposefully designed with practical purpose in mind, involving engagement with the actual phenomena.

Comprehensive WIL as ‘category’

This category includes examples of large scope or extensive coverage generally of substantial credit-bearing WIL. However, in some cases internships may involve postgraduate work under supervision with the aim of professional registration. Such WIL should be purposefully designed to provide students opportunities to practise and reflect on actual work with supervisory guidance and feedback. University staff generally provide briefing/debriefing, reflection and support sessions, monitoring and assessment. Students may further be required to participate in activities to share, reflect on and integrate their learning experiences. Comprehensive WIL displays both high levels of authenticity, and high levels of proximity to future work practice.

References

Dean, B., Eady, M.J. and Yanamandram, V. 2020. Editorial: Advancing Non-placement Work-integrated Learning Across the Degree. Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice, 17(4), Available at: https://ro.uow.edu.au/jutlp/vol17/iss4/1

Dean, B., Yanamandram, V., Eady, M.J., Moroney, T., O'Donnell, N., & Glover-Chambers, T. 2020. An institutional framework for scaffolding work-integrated learning across a degree. Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice, 17(4). Available at: https://ro.uow.edu.au/jutlp/vol17/iss4/6

Kaider, F., Hains-Wesson, R., & Young, K. 2017. Typology of authentic WIL activities and assessment, Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 18(2), 153-165. Available at: https://www.ijwil.org/files/APJCE_18_2_153_165.pdf

What does quality work-integrated learning entail?

A webpage of the International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning (IJWIL) states that although there are similarities, “there is no agreed-upon single definition of work-integrated learning (WIL)” and therefore opted for a broad definition, namely:

an educational approach that uses relevant work-based experiences to allow students to integrate theory with the meaningful practice of work as an intentional component of the curriculum

The International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning (IJWIL) webpage provides the following examples of practices:

work placements, work-terms, internships, practicum, cooperative education (Co-op), fieldwork, work-related projects/competitions, service learning, entrepreneurships, student-led enterprise, applied projects, simulations (including virtual WIL)

The webpage further states that “WIL shares similarities in aims and underpinning theories of learning to the fields of experiential learning, work-based learning, and vocational education and training, however, each of these fields have enough differences to be seen as separate fields” (emphasis of concepts added). The webpage elaborates that it “invites submissions of manuscripts discussing research where students may not be 'placed' within a workplace but, for example, where students undertake a project that is campus-based but for an outside partner (e.g., work-related projects, competitions, entrepreneurships, community projects, virtual WIL, etc).”

At the University of Cincinnati, where cooperative education has been practiced since 1906, it is understood that “WIL is a complex learning framework rooted in constructivism where the learner learns through experiences and through critical reflection on those experiences”; and quality with regard to WIL is defined (emphases added) as:

• Intentional (experiences are structured with trained educators as facilitators)
• Learner-centered and holistic (concerned with learning and growth of the student as a whole)
• Collaborative with the learner’s community or communities (contextualized to include real-world complexities, situated within real world contexts)
• Dependent on the inclusion of rigorous preflexive, reflexive, and reflective pedagogic strategies

The notion ‘preflection’ entails “the act of reflecting on something before it has happened”, which reminds me of the good teaching practice of briefing viewers prior to screening a film/video in order to focus the attention of viewers on the learning points. ‘Preflection’ is a deemed a strategy; a tool designed to enhance and enrich the reflection process; a reflective session prior to the experience.

Reflexive practice is where students consider the implications from what they have learnt as it may apply to the wider context they are within; whereas reflective practice is where students reflect on what they have learnt and what it means to them personally. The contrast can be illustrated as follow:

The aforementioned is in contrast to the South African Council on Higher Education (CHE) quality criterium 15 for work-based learning as contained in https://www.psychsoma.co.za/learning_in_vivo/2020/07/proposed-decision-making-chart-with-regard-to-work-integrated-learning-wil.html

Proposed decision-making chart with regard to work-integrated learning (WIL)

Much has been published about the range of work-integrated learning (WIL) options with regard to learning design within the South African context. However, many appear to cling to workplace learning (WPL), while complaining that there are not sufficient placement opportunities. [I maintain that while the advisory bodies of programmes at tertiary intuitions are not representative of the occupational field, such institutions cannot naively cling to workplace learning, but are obliged to seek alternative WIL options.] The Council on Higher Education (CHE) further stipulated a number of quality criteria pertaining WPL or work-based learning (WBL), which in turn entail availability of certain resource, matters that needed to have been considered at application stage to offer the qualification.

Project-based learning (PjBL), however, does not offer an easy alternative. Academic cannot merely 'convert' the WPL materials and suggest to students to 'find' their own opportunity/place to complete a project approximating the prerequisite WPL. Proper PjBL requires significant support from the occupational field, probably as much as what WPL would have.

Simulated work experiences (SWEs) are not a simple alternative either. The required virtual materials need to exist, or need to be made (requiring adequate budget). The necessary infrastructure, technology, access, networks and data are further issues that could stand in the way of SWEs.

I've put together a Download Proposed decision-making chart with regard to work-integrated learning (WIL) with the aforementioned in mind:

A comprehensive framework for assuring the quality of work-integrated learning

Much emphasis is placed on the notion of ‘quality’, on quality assurance measures and initiatives, and on improvement plans (or frameworks), state McRae, Pretti and Church (2019: 1-2). Quality could be described as a desired end-state, a striving for excellence.

There are a number of frameworks of quality standards deemed relevant:

• Smith’s (2012) framework for evaluation of the work-integrated learning (WIL) curriculum proposes six measures of specific domains, namely authenticity, integrated learning support, alignment, supervisor access, and induction (or preparation processes)
• The Council on Higher Education (2014) criteria for the coordination of work-based learning programmes presented by distance higher education institutions.
• The McRae, Pretti and Church (2019) triple-A star (AAA★) framework below, comprising five main sections, namely (1) the foundation, concepts, terminology and five stakeholder groups (students, host organisations/employers, the educators, academic institutions, and governments—in each of the stakeholder groups there are potentially “advocates”, which are bodies representing the interests of and/or supporting the group); (2) the participation aims of each of the stakeholders; (3) the actions by each of the stakeholders that is critical for quality; (4) the expected achievements (or outcomes, impacts, measures, and key performance indicators) for each of the stakeholders; and (5) finally a synthesis of four sections, as well as an outline of a continuous improvement process.

Figure: Triple-A star (AAA★) framework (McRae, Pretti & Church, 2019: 1)

Whereas the Council on Higher Education (2014) reiterates the 2004 accreditation criteria; Smith (2012: 250) presents a new evaluation framework which structurally and conceptually divides the WIL curriculum into six domains or constructs:

1. Authenticity
2. Alignment of teaching and learning activities with integrative learning objectives (Align-TLA)
3. Alignment of assessment with integrative learning objectives (Align-Asst)
4. Integrated Learning Support (across the two university and workplace sites) (ILS)
5. Supervisor Access (Sup. Access)
6. Induction and Preparation Processes (IPP)

The Council on Higher Education (2014) furthermore persists with the use of the term work-based learning (and the coordination thereof), whereas Smith (2012: 250) asserts that authenticity “is at the heart of all workplace-situated learning”. Smith (2012: 247) asserts that work-integrated learning (WIL) entails students spending time “in professional, work or other practice settings relevant to their degrees of study and to their occupational futures”; but points out that “WIL is not the same as work experience or work-based learning, neither of which require students to specifically learn, apply or integrate canonical disciplinary knowledge”. Both physical authenticity (providing students with real work environments) and cognitive authenticity (where students personally engage in, encounter, and participate in meaningful and relevant learning within the specified disciplinary framework) of curricula are deemed important. The authenticity is assessed with regard to what extent the environment would expose students to the real work settings and to which students can observe, interact and respond to that particular context. Projects should be meaningful and consequential. Freestone, Williams, Thompson and Trembath (2007) illustrate the application of a variant of the Course Experience Questionnaire (CEQ), namely the Work Experience Questionnaire (WEQ), as measure of the workplace learning experiences of students. The WEQ had been designed to explore the perceptions of students about their learning environment. The WEQ requires students to respond on a conventional five-point scale, ranging from strong disagreement (1), through to strong agreement/concurrence (5), with the intermediate points not labelled. The dimensions of ‘clear goals’ and ‘support for learning’ have been found to correlate highly with student learning. The WEQ questionnaire consisting of 33 items (questions), with items bundled into scales, namely:

• Clear Goals Scale (3 items)
• Support for Learning Scale (5 items)
• Generic Skills Scale (5 items)
• Menial Tasks Scale (3 items)
• Overall Satisfaction (1 item)
• Ungrouped individual questions (7 items)
• Additional Generic Skills (9 items).

Conceptually, there is a substantial difference between what is deemed quality. Whereas the Council on Higher Education (2014) focusses on various elements of coordination; Smith (2012) focusses on what constitutes good teaching and learning. He (p. 248) argues that WIL “focuses attention on the integration of discipline learning and workplace practice or application”. Smith (2012: 251) advances the “notion of the constructive alignment of learning objectives with teaching and learning activities (TLAs) and assessments”. He alludes to the fact that during WIL placements students are not at their host universities, but at workplaces, and therefore urges curriculum design deliberately integrated support services in the delivery, in order to improve the individual learning by alleviating stress. This up with the management of pedagogical aspects through induction and preparing students, both pedagogically and practically. Smith (2012: 252) recognises that such present an extra burden on academics, which is compounded by the need for maintaining contact “between the academic convenor (or appropriate others – e.g. tutors) and students in situ” (notion of supervisor access).

McRae, Pretti and Church (2019: 7) assert that “WIL is a collaborative endeavour and the perspectives of multiple stakeholders need to be incorporated to ensure the quality of WIL outcomes” and elaborate that “each of these stakeholders has a connection to quality WIL as described by the key aspects identified by P.E.A.R.”:

• P for pedagogy — the curriculum needs to be designed “to allow students and host organizations to make the most of the experience and students need to engage with the curriculum”
• E for experience — “educators need to verify that the opportunity aligns with the educational goals of the course/program, host organizations need to provide opportunities for meaningful and substantial contributions, and WIL students need to fully engage with the host organization to make the experience valuable for both themselves and the organization”
• A for assessment — “designed by the educator with input from the student and host organization”
• R for reflection — the educator must provide prompts “to facilitate reflection on the experience for the student and the host organization ensuring maximum learning gains from the experience”

McRae, Pretti and Church (2019: 4-5) cites the Canadian national association for Co-operative and Work-Integrated Learning (CEWIL) definition of work-integrated learning (WIL), namely “a model and process of curricular experiential education which formally and intentionally integrates a student’s academic studies within a workplace or practice setting. WIL experiences include an engaged partnership of at least: an academic institution, a host organization, and a student. WIL can occur at the course or program level and includes the development of learning outcomes related to employability, personal agency, and life-long learning”. They further differentiate nine different models or forms of curricular WIL that exist in many post-secondary institutional contexts, namely:

• Apprenticeship
• Co-operative Education (co-op alternating and co-op internship models)
• Internship
• Entrepreneurship
• Service Learning
• Applied Research Projects
• Mandatory Professional Practicum/Clinical Placement
• Field Placement
• Work Experience

McRae, Pretti and Church (2019: 17) conclude that a quality framework for work-integrated learning is a critical, because each stakeholder has finite resources that they can be directed towards WIL, and each need to be intentional in how to allocate available resources. Many stakeholders support the positive outcomes of WIL in higher education as well as expansion, however, the outcomes are not guaranteed. Quality must remain in focus. McRae, Pretti and Church (2019: 17) suggest that through articulating the aims; accomplishing the actions; assessing the achievements of the primary stakeholders; and by using the acquired information it is possible to set a continuous improvement process in motion through quality can be assured.

References

Council on Higher Education. 2014. Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Programme Accreditation Criteria (pp 81-107), in Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide — Criterion 15, p. 104. Electronically accessible from http://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/CHE%20-%20Distance%20Higher%20Education.pdf

Freestone, R., Williams, P., Thompson, S. & Trembath, K. 2007. A quantitative approach to assessment of work-based learning outcomes: an urban planning application. Higher Education Research & Development, 26(4), December, 347–361. Electronically accessible from https://tandfonline.com/toc/cher20/26/4?nav=tocList

McRae, N.T., Pretti, J. & Church, D. 2019. Work-Integrated Learning Quality Framework. University of Waterloo, Waterloo Centre for the Advancement of Co-operative Education (WatCACE), Electronically accessible from https://uwaterloo.ca/centre-advancement-co-operative-education/research-publications/wil-quality-framework

Smith, C. 2012. Evaluating the quality of work-integrated learning curricula: a comprehensive framework. Higher Education Research & Development, 31(2), 247–262. Electronically accessible from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07294360.2011.558072

Work-directed theoretical learning (WDTL)

The purpose of this post is to clarify work-directed theoretical learning (WDTL), as one of a number of experiential learning curricular modalities. It is deemed important that higher education academics in South Africa realise that if workplace learning (WPL), or work-based learning (WBL), is chosen as curricular modality, then a number of criteria and requirements apply. However, there are legitimate alternatives available to choose from. One of the alternatives entails work-directed theoretical learning (WDTL).

“University teachers [academics] should be concerned to ensure that the students that graduate from their programmes are prepared for the world in which they will live and work”, states the foreword of Council on Higher Education (2011) publication Work-Integrated Learning: Good Practice Guide. This publication differentiates several work-integrated learning (WIL) curricular modalities, namely:

• Work-directed theoretical learning (WDTL)
• Problem-based learning (PBL)
• Project-based learning (PJBL)
• Workplace learning (WPL)

The term work-based learning (WBL) is further often used as alternative term for WIL.

§34 and §35 (p. 17) of the Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework (HEQSF, 2014) pertain to WIL. §35 specifies that “Where the entire WIL component or any part of it takes the form of workplace-based learning [WPL/WBL], it is the responsibility of institutions that offer programmes requiring credits for such learning to place students into appropriate workplaces. Such workplace-based learning [WPL/WBL] must be appropriately structured, properly supervised and assessed.” The Council on Higher Education (CHE) Criteria for Programme Accreditation (2004) and Criteria for Institutional Audits (2004) specify requirements pertaining work-based learning.

The CHE Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide (2014) publication includes (pp 81-107) Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Programme Accreditation Criteria, A Companion to Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide. Criterion 15 specifies the minimum expectation pertaining to WPL/WBL.

However, §34 states that “In the HEQSF, WIL may take various forms including simulated learning [SWE], work-directed theoretical learning [WBTL], problem-based learning [PBL], project-based learning [PJBL] and workplace-based learning [WPL]”. §34 further states that “The selection of appropriate forms of work-integrated learning depends on the nature and purpose of the qualification type programme objectives and outcomes, the NQF level at which the WIL component is pegged, institutional capacity to provide WIL opportunities, and the structures and systems that are in place within professional settings and sites of practice to support student learning.” (emphases and acronyms added)

§34 of the HEQSF further clarifies that “Some qualifications will be designed to integrate theory and practice through the incorporation of work-integrated learning (WIL) into the curriculum. WIL is characteristic of vocational and professionally-oriented qualifications, and may be incorporated into programmes at all levels of the HEQSF.” Also that “Where WIL is a structured part of a qualification the volume of learning allocated to WIL should be appropriate to the purpose of the qualification and to the cognitive demands of the learning outcomes and assessment criteria contained in the appropriate level descriptors.” (emphases added)

It is concluded that in cases where workplace-based learning [WPL/WBL] is formalised as part of the curriculum, a number of conditions apply to such learning, including the responsibility of the university concerned to place students. Mutereko and Wedekind (2016) report in this regard that more than 65% of students studying at South African Higher Education Institutions, although a prerequisite for completion of many qualifications, are unable to find workplace experience. It is quite evident, however, from the aforementioned that provision is made for a range of alternatives “to ensure that the students that graduate from … programmes are prepared for the world in which they will live and work”. One of these alternates is work-directed theoretical learning (WBTL).

What exactly is work-directed theoretical learning (WDTL)?

Du Plessis (2015, p. 52) indicates that work-directed theoretical learning “refers to academic or theoretical learning which is structured by focusing on what the student needs to know to be able to function sufficiently in the workplace” (emphasis added). She adds that “teaching and learning activities for WDTL should be aligned to bring theory and practice together in meaningful ways” and references §3.4.1 (p. 16) of the CHE (2011) Good Practice Guide. She elaborates further by pointing out the importance “that the design of WDTL activities aligns the disciplinary demands with workplace relevance so that students understand the necessity of having a sound knowledge base in preparation of what will be expected of them in the workplace” (emphasis added).

Mutereko and Wedekind (2016, p. 904) synthesised the attempts of several authors to operationalise and classify different kinds of work knowledge. They summarise that knowledge can be divided into two broad classes, namely explicit and tacit knowledge. Whereas the first (explicit) is transmittable in familiar language it is teachable. However, the latter (tacit) is embedded in action in specific context and cannot be articulated, and therefore teachable through modelling the tacit skills. Tacit knowledge, furthermore, has two components, namely cognitive form (which helps to perceive their world) and technical form (applicable to specific settings).

Mutereko and Wedekind (2016, p. 905) express concern that conventional pedagogy “suffers the risk of leaving inexperienced students with the impression that subsequent field problems can be nestled into neat technical packages”. Work process knowledge, distinguishable from discipline-based knowledge, is “as a combination of practical and theoretical knowledge”. “While theoretical knowledge is context free, guides action, is academic, is objective and justifies the action, practical knowledge is contextualised as implicit (tacit) and subjective”. Work process knowledge “is acquired through action ‘in the work process itself’”.

The synthesis by Mutereko and Wedekind (2016, p. 905) further points out “three kinds of knowledge, namely knowledge by acquaintance, propositional knowledge and knowledge how”:

• “Knowledge by acquaintance [similar to tacit knowledge above] is the knowledge that is acquired ‘through the senses and these need not to be just one sense’ and … embodies attributes that could not be expressed and understood in any other way”

• Propositional knowledge or declarative knowledge
• “Knowledge how [or procedural knowledge] is related to skill and a significant proportion of it is tacit … [it] ‘involves recognising and following rules for carrying out actions and the exercise of intentional agency’”

Mutereko and Wedekind (2016, p. 905) emphasise that proper sequencing of teaching and learning is important “so as to develop the desired expertise”.

Different ways to achieve work-directed theoretical learning

The South African Veterinary Council (2016, p. 4) emphasises accepted ‘Day One’ competencies of the profession (or vocation) concerned. It asserts that a qualification’s curriculum should provide adequate practical (or applied) experience for graduates to acquire ‘Day One’ competencies. The curriculum design (p. 7) must specify how the ‘Day One’ competencies for appropriate levels of students will be accomplished. All students should receive (p. 11) the ‘Day One’ skills list; and assessment practices (p. 10) must be aligned to the ‘Day One’ competencies, meaningful, relevant and reliable. Stakeholder representation (p. 5) and involvement, in order to ensure relevance, is deemed a minimum standard.

A variety of teaching and learning activities can be utilised to facilitate work-directed theoretical learning (WDTL), such as:

• Inclusion of podcasts by guest lecturers (or speakers/presenters) from both the workplace and professional practice in the learning materials. Just-in-time podcasts can be created about contemporary developments, to illustrate application and stimulate interest.
• Podcasts and/or case studies about real-life occurrences and industry experiences would give students insights into theoretical contexts.
• Real-life case studies, from the world of work (or professional practice in the field) would both enhance learning and ensure that the link between theoretical learning and what is happening in the workplace stays intact.
• The use of assessors from the workplace and/or field of practice would enhance authenticity.
• Electronic tutorials (as well as face-to-face), facilitated by practitioners from the occupational-field could greatly contribute to students better grasping the applications in realities.
• Demonstrations (through videos) and simulations (virtual realities) are potential ways to replicate real-life settings.
• Structured interactive sessions, within for example a laboratory, could establish the link between the theory and practice and facilitate learning.
• Peer learning, within in groups, could be utilised for students to learn from one another, as well as to stimulate critical thinking and the formation of links through the sharing of knowledge and experiences. Dialogue with both peers and teachers/academics elicits those activities that shape, elaborate and deepen understanding.

Council on Higher Education (2004). Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC). Criteria for Programme Accreditation. Pretoria: Compress. Electronically accessible from http://www.che.ac.za/media_and_publications/frameworks-criteria/criteria-programme-accreditation

Council on Higher Education (2004). Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC). Criteria for Institutional Audits. Pretoria: Compress. Electronically accessible from http://www.che.ac.za/media_and_publications/frameworks-criteria/criteria-institutional-audits

Council on Higher Education (2011). Work-Integrated Learning: Good Practice Guide. HE Monitor No. 12, August 2011. Pretoria: IeCommunications. Electronically accessible from http://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/Higher_Education_Monitor_12.pdf

Council on Higher Education (2014). Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide. Electronically accessible from http://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/CHE%20-%20Distance%20Higher%20Education.pdf

Du Plessis, J.G.E. (2015). A work-integrated learning education and training programme for radiography in South Africa. University of Free State, a doctoral thesis. Electronically accessible from http://scholar.ufs.ac.za:8080/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11660/1064/DuPlessisJGE.pdf?sequence=1

Mutereko, S. and Wedekind, V. (2016). Work integrated learning for engineering qualifications: a spanner in the works? Journal of Education and Work, 29(8), 902–921. Electronically accessible from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13639080.2015.1102211

South African Government (2014). Department of Higher Education and Training, Government Notice No 819. Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework. Government Gazette No. 38116, 17 October 2014. Electronically accessible from http://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/38116_gon819.pdf and/or http://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/CHE%20-%20Higher%20Education%20Qualification%20Framework%20-%20EDITED%20171013.pdf

South African Veterinary Council (2016). Work integrated learning policy for veterinary and para-veterinary professional students. Electronically accessible from http://www.savc.org.za/pdf_docs/2016%20JUL%2026_SAVC%20WIL%20POLICY.pdf