Learning in vivo

Work integrated research higher degree (WIRHD) studies

“Doctoral education is transforming” say Ohlson and Bernhard (2023: 523). The “traditional doctoral training and research mode is facing some challenges in meeting the industry needs in this fasting changing economy” indicate Chen et al (2008: 129). They point out that “there is greater pressure for research to be linked to applied usage, be aligned with private-sector or government objectives and to have shared intellectual property arrangements”. Treptow (2013: 83) reiterates this saying “current international trends reveal that doctoral education is increasingly expected to satisfy workplace demands”. There is furthermore an “expanding job market for PhD holders entering entirely new fields” say Chen et al (2008: 129), and “pressure on doctoral training to be more flexible and aimed at a wider array of jobs than the traditional academic profession”. Project doctoral programmes furthermore evolved, having “greater emphasis on research conducted and directed within the workplace” and both professional and project doctoral candidates tend to “research topics that are closely associated with the context of their workplace” that “bring together the academy and the workplace with an emphasis on professional practice” (p. 130). Because of these reasons the Work Integrated Research Higher Degree (WIRHD) has emerged “and is intended to be a significant piece of original research which makes a new contribution to science and the discipline”. Chen et al (2008: 133), as well as Stewart and Chen (2009: 162), present a graphical illustration (Figure 1 below) of the integrative framework comprising the unique components of the WIHRD contexts.

The solid-line circle represents the powerful supervisor-student relationship which should enjoy prominence; however the research involves both the academic and industry contexts, therefore the second dotted-line circle, portraying the industry supervisor. WIRHD “is nested within three-tiers of department/discipline, University/Organisation and social/supra-societal contexts”. The establishment of a project-based partnership arrangement between the university and the industry is deemed necessary to enhance communication and co-operation. Furthermore, a structured approach to enable the student and the supervisors to specify the objectives; to outline the duties and roles of both students and supervisors; and to set “the principles and structures for performance monitoring, information exchange and dispute resolution”. Ohlson and Bernhard (2023: 523) studied “the perspectives of industrial PhD students, academia, and industry … with work-integrated learning as a theoretical lens to identify benefits, challenges, and prerequisites for how to structure and manage such a collaboration”.

In the South African context, section 34 of the Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework (HEQSF, 2014: 17) states that “Some qualifications will be designed to integrate theory and practice through the incorporation of work-integrated learning (WIL) into the curriculum … and may be incorporated into programmes at all levels of the HEQSF” (emphasis added). The higher education qualification descriptor (p. 38) for a Master's Degree (Professional, NQF Exit Level 9) states that “in some cases, a professional Master's degree may be designed in consultation with a professional body or fulfil all or part of the requirements for professional registration or recognition, and may include appropriate forms of work-integrated learning” (emphasis added). The descriptor for a Doctoral Degree (p. 40) states that “the designator of Philosophy is typically used for general doctoral degrees by thesis. However, other designators may be used to denote the area of study or the name of the discipline” and for Professional Doctoral degrees (p. 41) the qualification type may be followed by a designator that indicates the area of study or name of the discipline, for example, Doctor of Business Administration (DBA); Doctor of Commerce (DCom); Doctor of Education (DEd); Doctor of Engineering (DEng); Doctor of Law (LLD); Doctor of Nursing (DNursing); Doctor of Pharmacy (DPharm); Doctor of Psychology (DPsych); and Doctor of Social Work (DSW). Furthermore, that the PhD title should not be used; however, the qualification may include appropriate forms of work-integrated learning; the research component should comprise at least 60%; demonstrate a high level of research capability; and the application of theoretical knowledge to highly complex problems.

“Traditional doctoral research training is structured around a master and apprentice transmission model, relying predominantly on primary supervisors for candidate research training” say O'Connor (2023: 567) and indicate that “in this model, professional development of candidates typically centers on discipline-specific knowledge and research techniques”. “A new landscape for various models for doctoral education is emerging” say Ohlson and Bernhard (2023: 523) and add that “university-industry collaboration is a widespread phenomenon for education and innovation in response to societal challenges”. “There is a world-wide increase of alternative forms of doctoral education based on collaboration between academia and work-life such as the professional doctorate” they reiterate (p. 524). The “alternative doctoral training models aim to broaden PhD candidate training”, say O'Connor (2023: 567). “The concept of [work-integrated learning] WIL has developed over time and is today an umbrella term covering education, collaboration, and research” (p. 525). An “approach for university-industry collaboration is work-integrated learning (WIL)”, with an industrial PhD focus, where “industrial PhD students embody the collaborative interplay between education and work influencing organizational learning” (p. 524). However, there is potential “tension between the tasks, time, and cognitive load required to develop qualified researchers as discipline stewards” indicate O'Connor (2023: 568). The design and delivery need to occur in a careful, considered and evidence-based manner he states, and advocates “four emergent design principles for alternative doctoral training models” (p. 569), namely:

• An increased range/breadth of content experts that are providing training to PhD candidates
• The scope of WIL activities and content delivery should be broader than commercialisation
• Adequately scaffold the WIL activities of PhD candidates, keeping in mind their specific needs and be observant of changing needs at different stages of their research candidature
• Purposefully co-designed WIL activities, because simply placing research students in an industry environment would not necessarily translate into powerful learning experiences

O'Connor (2023: 568) also state that PhD candidates should be attracted from any research discipline for whom the additional training is beneficial; but to avoid candidates where prior employment and experience do not match the research programme. He further cautions about potential disengagement due to ineffectual content or WIL activities; as well as “stress due to inadequate communication or management of candidate and supervisor needs”. He recommends minimisation of cognitive overload and workload associated with additional training, but without compromising effectiveness, because “doctoral candidates already experience a variety of stressors inherent to their PhD studies”. He indicates that “alternative doctoral training programs require resources, support systems, qualified personnel, peer networks, and content”.

The focus of knowledge creation by universities gradually shifted because industry recognised the value of creating knowledge indicate Bernhard and Olsson (2023). “University–industry interactions in doctoral education are of importance for mutual life-long learning by integrating workplace learning and research redeveloping work practices related to new concepts, technologies and organizational principles” (p. 507) they add. Industrial PhD students “are spanning boundaries between university and industry generating continuous opportunities for validation and testing of empirical results and models in industry” state Bernhard and Olsson (2020: 147). As key stakeholders industrial PhD students “embody the informing flows between practice and university and between practice and research”, enabling the “short-lag dissemination of research results”, “may enable increased research quality”, and strengthen legitimacy.

Stewart and Chen (2009: 167) remark that the work integrated research higher degree (WIRHD) emerged in an informal manner “for contemporary research students to develop both high-level professional capabilities in a real industry environment as well as strong research skills, which create knowledge through original research of academic rigour”. WIRHD further ensures relevance of engineering doctorates.

Ajjawi, R. & Kent, F. (2022). Understanding Realist Reviews for Medical Education. Journal of Graduate Medical Education, June. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4300/JGME-D-22-00334.1

Bernhard, I. & Olsson, A.K. (2020). University-industry collaboration in higher education: exploring the informing flows framework in industrial PhD education. Informing Science: The International Journal of an Emerging Transdiscipline, 23, 147-163. https://doi.org/10.28945/4672

Bernhard, I. & Olsson, A.K. (2023). One foot in academia and one in work-life – the case of Swedish industrial PhD students. Journal of Workplace Learning, 35(6). 506-523. https://doi.org/10.1108/JWL-11-2022-0157

Chen, L., Stewart, R.A., Willis, R. & Britton, T. (2008). Work integrated research higher degree studies: experiences, benefits, barriers and coping strategies. In: Mann, Llewellyn (Editor); Thompson, Adam (Editor); Howard, Prue (Editor). 19th Annual Conference of the Australasian Association for Engineering Education, Yeppoon: To Industry and Beyond; Proceedings of the. Barton, A.C.T.: Institution of Engineers, Australia, 2008: [129]-[134].

O'Connor, M.D., Denejkina, A. & Arvanitakis, J. (2023). Preparing doctoral candidates for employment: Delivering research and employability skills training in the PhD via work-integrated learning. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 24(1), 19-42. https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_24_1_19_42.pdf

O'Connor, M.D. (2023). Design principles for work-integrated learning-based, alternative doctoral training programs informed by PhD candidate feedback. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 24(4), 567-582. https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_24_4_567_582.pdf

Olsson, A.K. & Bernhard, I. (2023). Transforming doctoral education: Exploring industrial PhD collaboration in Sweden. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 24(4), 523-536. https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_24_4_523_536.pdf

Taylor, N. & Maxwell, T.W. (2004). Enhancing the relevance of a professional doctorate: The case of the Doctor of Education Degree at the University of New England. Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 5(1), 60-69. https://www.ijwil.org/files/APJCE_05_1_60_69.pdf

Treptow, R. (2013). The South African PhD: Insights from employer interviews. Perspectives in Education, 31(2), 83-91,142.

South African Government. (2014), Department of Higher Education and Training, Government Notice No 819. Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework. Government Gazette No. 38116, 17 October. https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201410/38116gon819.pdf

Stewart, R.A. & Chen, L. (2009). Developing a framework for work integrated research higher degree studies in an Australian engineering context, European Journal of Engineering Education, 34:2, 155-169. https://doi.org/10.1080/03043790902833325

Valencia-Forrester, F. (2019) Internships and the PhD: Is this the future direction of work-integrated learning in Australia? International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 20(4), 389-400. https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_20_4_389_400.pdf

Stolen Knowledge

‘Stolen knowledge’ is about acquired learning, a pedagogical strategy traced back to Lave and Wenger (1991), a process where ‘newcomers’ become ‘old-timers’ as they move from legitimate peripheral participation (LPP) to full participation. Brown and Duguid (1996) use the notion ‘stolen knowledge’ to describe learning taking place in authentic practice. Learners acquire (steal) implicit knowledge by being present, and by participating in the sociocultural context, characterized by a series of circumstances and interactions. Workplace mentors should engage students in on-demand learning, and make it feasible for students to experience full-blooded practice. A great deal of practice remains implicit in practice itself. Opportunities should made feasible for students (learners) to ‘steal’ the knowledge and abilities (keys) needed for role taking in a community of practice.

Sally Burford, S.; Cooper, L. & Miller, F. (2020). Stolen knowledge: Student knowing in workplace practice. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 21(2), 163-176. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_21_2_163_176.pdf

Chen. P. (2012). Field experiences in instructional design and technology: Legitimate participation and stolen knowledge. Journal of Educational Technology Development and Exchange, 5(1), 13-28.

Work-integrated learning often NOT adequately engaged

Work-integrated learning is not seen as community engagement, a senior and influential colleague asserts. During the past two decades a new form of scholarship has been emerging, publishes Barker (2004, 123), namely the scholarship of engagement that entails the “broadening and deepening the public aspects of academic scholarship …[meaning] scholars are finding creative ways to communicate to public audiences, work for the public good, and, most important, generate knowledge with public participation”. Barker cites Ernest Boyer (1990) who argues that scholarship of engagement, among others, “incorporate reciprocal practices of civic engagement into the production of knowledge” (124).

Barker (2004, 125-6) remarks that “service-learning and experiential learning are two well-known practices that incorporate civic involvement”. However, scholarship of engagement goes much further. Barker (2004, 127) observes that “engaged scholars typically make a conscious effort to stress the pedagogical value of collaborating with publics instead of providing information
to or services for publics”.

Conway (2006, 134) reports that the title of the 2005 Outreach Scholarship Conference has been “Transformation through Engagement”, which conveys the notion of making a difference. Engaged scholarship is about “sharing knowledge, conveying skills, and helping others solve problems”. The role of higher education includes “the integration and application of knowledge in service to society”. Engaged scholars “work shoulder-to-shoulder with citizens to put knowledge to work in the community and integrate new ideas and technologies into practical systems”.

Conway (2006, 135) makes the point that “cooperation is not collaboration”. Scholarship of engagement is not about extending university resources; or the taking of science (or science-based
answers); to address community or public problems. Instead, it is about truly collaborative efforts, as equals, recognising that problems solving requires the blending of experiential and scientific knowledge. It is about practising participatory and action research; not dreaming up projects and then persuading a community to participate.

Conway (2006, 134) shares the example of the Oregon coastal commercial fishing industry that comprises many strong, family enterprises (a fishing community of place, but also a community of specific interest). University-based research and technologies have been extended to help address complex natural, societal, and political challenges experienced. Through a co-learner mode,
instead of academic expert, scientific knowledge contributed to solving environmental challenges.

Good work-integrated learning practice, where the workplace of individual students are carefully considered and contracting between university, organisation and student could well be examplary of scholarly engagement in community.

 

Barker, D. 2004. The scholarship of engagement: a taxonomy of five emerging practices. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, Volume 9, Number 2, 123-137.

Conway, F.D.L. 2006. Sharing knowledge, power, and respect: keys in bringing communities together to improve science, practice, and relationships. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, Volume 11, Number 1, 133-143.

Restorative Formative Normative Custodian

In an article titled ‘But I thought you were doing that’ Rowe, Mackaway and Winchester-Seeto (2012) attempt to clarify the role of the host mentor/supervisor in the experience-based learning setting. They present the following model:

The model identifies four key roles: Restorative (supporting the student); Formative (fulfilling an educatinal role); Normative (administrative functions); and Custodian (guardian role within the community of practice). 

The article elaborates on the aspects that make up the four roles.

Rowe, T.; Mackaway, J. & Winchester-Seeto, T. 2012. ‘But I thought you were doing that’ – Clarifying the role of the host supervisor in experience-based learning. Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 2012(2), 115-134.

Each credit equals 10 notional hours of learning

There is an argument that an average student should not be required to devote more than 10 hours for each credit. A 12 credit work-integrated learning module, it is argued, should therefore take 120 hours, if not:

• The curriculum is wrong
• The assignment is incorrect
• The WIL assignment is too long
• The assignment is not good enough

The argument disregards the time it takes for a student to settle in and to be orientated. The argument does not take into consideration the learning derived from various alternatives in real life. Neither does the argument take into consideration the reality that often a volume of mundane activities are required for an achievement. Few work places would be on the ready awaiting a student’s focussed exposure. In most real life situations work goes on and students learning from being present and making a contribution of some kind.

The advice from the bearer of the news is “make peace with it and move on…”

Patricia Anne Greening remarked on Facebook: "It also ignores such factors as outside distractions, poorly prepared or poorly presented material; and the state of the learner's health, and mental condition (e.g. sleepy, undernourished; stressed)."

Hi Thomas:

I do not agree that one credit equals 10 hours of learning.  Some years ago in Australia, there was an attempt by the government to enforce a similar rule and in the end they gave up for the reasons outlined on your blog.  It does not make sense.  I am not sure what can be learned in a short time in any work place.  The other issue is that if you focus on hours and credits, then you miss the learning bit.  What are the learning outcomes expected in work place learning?  How long does it take to achieve that learning?  What is the evidence for that learning?  And how long does it take to integrate the learning in the workplace with academic learning?

Cheers,

Lesley

______________________________
Lesley Cooper
Acting Principal/Vice-President
Wilfrid Laurier University
Brantford Campus
73 George Street
Brantford, Ontario   N3T 2Y3
CANADA

Hi Lesley, Thomas and others,

One of the issues for work placements papers is that it does not neatly fall into the ‘typical paper template’.  The typical point baring paper template is a one size fits all model – which may work well for academic taught papers but does not for placement papers, but nevertheless that is the default model.  We have the same situation here at Waikato, where our placement papers are 20 points (supposedly 200 hours of learning) whilst students are at least 400 hours in the workplace.  We found it best to avoid drawing direct links to points and hours in the workplace – and most people recognise that placements are different.  

However, if forced in situation of drawing links to hours on placement and credit points, the first question to ask is, ‘is every hour in the workplace a quality learning hour?  We would argue not.  Probably initially it is, and perhaps also at the end of the placement, especially when engaging in placement report writing.  However, there will be fair chunks of time where it probably isn’t – or rather where there will be ‘dilute learning’ or where the learning is ‘spread out’.   So perhaps it is best to craft an argument that links points to hours of quality learning rather than hours in the workplace.  The later will allow for the longer placements needed for a better overall learning experience for the students, whilst the former is too restrictive and assumes that learning always occurs.

kz

Dr Karsten Zegwaard The University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand

Work based learners increasingly supported online

Online learning environments are increasingly being used to provide learning materials and tutor support, says Tony Toole, Director of the E-college.ac Ltd, Swansea, UK. Work-based learners may submit evidence portfolios online for the assessment of their skills development. Furthermore, employers and training advisors or academics working in partnership and liaise with each other online. Internet has significantly improved the efficiency of work-based learning support and offers significant cost savings for both employers and institutions. This is especially of value to small to medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) because they can more flexibly engage in work-based learning and can fit learning around work commitments with the added advantage of not involving time and travelling costs.

Web 2.0 technologies is utilised to build online learning environments with functionality similar to established commercial learning management systems, but far less costly. Cloud computing resources further enables reduced costs compared to hosting services online. Various social media, for example, YouTube, Blogs and Wikis further enables the sharing of resources. The Open Educational Resources (OER) movement resulted in fast volumes of educational materials being freely available online. Increasingly educationally relevant online work-based learning materials are being sourced from non-educational sources. The increase in personally owned mobile and wireless technologies further contributes to a win-win situation for all stakeholders in education. Blended and distance learning options are therefore becoming the preferred choice of learning.

Toole, T. 2011. Social media: key tools for the future of work-based learning. Development and Learning in Organizations, 25 (5), 31-34. Accessed online from Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1477-7282.

Reflective practice for collective learning

Raelin (2000: 101) calls "the process of public reflection" reflective practice; it is a community of inquiry and creates a collective identity. He defines reflection as "the practice of periodically stepping back to ponder the meaning to self and others in one's immediate environment about what has transpired. It illuminates what has been experienced by both self and others, providing a basic for future education", he adds.

Raelin (2000: 101-2) emphasises learning dialogues, as element of reflective practice, taking place in the security of trustworthy peers based on the direct experiences of work. Raelin (p. 103) refers to Plato's statement that 'the unexamined life isn't worth living' meaning that others need to be included in the examination of life experiences. It is more than collective naval gazing; it isintorspection midst of practice and in the presence of others.

"Reflective practitioners 'reinvest' in learning by participating in continuing education" and "engage in problem posing as much as problem solving, continually expand[ing] their solution database rather than select the first solution that works, view inconsistencies as opportunities rather than inconveniences, and enjoy reflecting back on their decision making rather than sealing off debate" (Raelin 2000: 105). Four explicit reflective practices that can be used each on its own or combined are presented by Raelin (2000: 115-145):

1. Learning teams

Work-based learning often involves action learning in teams. Co-workers undertake projects together, discuss dilemmas of work actions, as well as "the application or misapplication of concepts and theories to these actions" (p. 115). The learning device is to pose questions to one another.

2. Journaling

But "the journal is arguably the most endemic technique we have to enhance our self-reflection" admits Raelin (p. 124). Yet, he continues, although it is "often used as an introspective tool for personal growth, it can also serve as an aid to bring together the inner and outer parts of our lives. It offers a lens to view experience—be it before, during, or after the event under scrutiny—and it even allows further reflection on the journal entries themselves." The journal is a potent vehicle to collect private data for public learning dialogues and may include any one or more of the following:

• Logs or reports of specific factual experiences.
• Lists of observations or ideas.
• Portraits or descriptions of people or situations.
• Memoirs of personal experiences.
• Catalogues of feelings/perceptions in situations or about people.
• Intimate accounts including personal sentiments, confessions and notes.
• Dialogues recordings.
• Conceptual understandings.
• Commentary of applications of concepts.
• Social histories (stories) of issues unfolding.
• Maps of consciousness to capture the state of mind.
• Guided imagery, meditated frames of reference and/or dreams.
• Altered points of view in different contexts or timeframes.
• Contradictions or dilemmas experiences or observed.
• Inconsistencies noticed
• Surprises experiences.

3. Developmental planning

Developmental planning often linked to career development. It involves the individual interests, needs and expectations, as well as the organisational objectives and resource requirements. It is often an element of the overall organisational performance management strategy.

4. Developmental relationships

Examples of developmental relationships include coaching and mentoring.

Raelin, J.A. 2000. Work-based learning—the new frontier of management development. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Learning through work facilitated online

Sara Bosley and David Young (2006: 357) remark that "LtW is designed for people who are in work and wish to study part-time for a full HE award or credit towards one". Their paper considers the two-way, one-to-one online dialogue between student and tutor. They mention the following five-category method of content analysis:

1. Participative - this category consider the number of messages and exchange of statements
2. Social - these are unrelated statements to the formal content, but necessary greetings and include expressions of feelings
3. Interactive - these are chained messages with regard to the contributions of other
4. Cognitive - this category comprise those knowledge related online learning processes such as asking questions, drawing inferences and presenting hypotheses
5. Meta-cognitive - these are skills and knowledge pertaining to the learning process itself

Bosley and Young (356) further present four online tutor roles, namely:

• Pedagogical - this roles involves questioning and feedback or advice
• Managerial - such as the coordination of assignments
• Social - spicing with humour, offering empathy and meta-cognition interactions
• Technical - this role entail user assistance

In addition to these online tutor roles Bosley and Young mention the importance of motivation, the facilitating of group interaction and encouraging online participation. They observe that there are five stages through which an online group need to progress in order to achieve a high-level of learning:

1. central are access and motivation of learners
2. socialisation online
3. information
4. knowledge construction
5. development

Fostering of a culture of enquiry is a important aspect of e-teaching. Little and Whitelock (in Bosley & Young) mention technical, administrative, organisational, supportive, encouraging and community-building roles.

Bosley and Young also highlight two key components of LtW, namely individual leaning contracting (ILC) and work-based projects.

Source

Bosley, S. & Young, D. 2006. Online learning dialogues in learning through work. The Journal of Workplace Learning, 18(6), 355-366