Learning in vivo

A three-prong approach: teaching and learning, student support or institutional advancement?

What determines the location of work-integrated learning functionaries? The age-old maxim ‘strategy determines structure’, or what is on the forefront of the minds of decision-makers, applies. What is ‘the position of most prominence’, which argument is the strongest, or who holds the most power? One of three possible locations within executive portfolios are found, say Nofemela (2023):

• Work-integrated learning is deemed as part of the curriculum and therefore located within teaching and learning.
• Securing placements for workplace-based learning (WPBL) is seen as institutional advancement, engagement, and partnerships, requiring marketing expertise.
• Supporting students in identifying job opportunities, producing CVs and cover letters, preparing for job interviews, networking professionally, developing career portfolios and online profiles, etc. requires specialist counselling and career expertise.

‘A guide to effective practice of WIL’ (2010), suggests the embracing of a new institutional paradigm, namely “work integrated learning as a higher education enterprise” (p. 23), in contrast to the cottage industry (old paradigm) of “located at the specific programme level within disciplines and academic departments” (p. 21), where it remains largely invisible and under-resourced. It is said that there is a “deep misunderstanding of what is required to establish and maintain effective work integrated learning programmes” (p. 22). There is a considerable amount of work involved in locating placement opportunities, “preparing and negotiating learning environments within workplaces” (which require relevant expertise), as well as “briefing and debriefing students before and after”, and in mentoring, “supervising, supporting, and assessing learning outcomes” (p. 22).

The new paradigm suggests a change in “locus of leadership” and “an important element in institutional and national agenda” (p. 23). It further suggests integration with and incorporation of “other goals such as gaining a competitive edge in the market of student enrolment and forging authentic, comprehensive industry and community partnerships”.

Coll & Eames (2000: 9-10) identify three models for the location of WIL placement coordinators, the role of the persons collaboration between the university and industry regarding WPBL—which entails much more than mere ‘placement jockey’. The models, or three-prong approach, includes:

• Decentralised, as part of an academic department and functions totally within it
• Centralised, functioning as single unit responsible for all the students across subject disciplines
• Combined centralised-decentralised (integrated), where coordinators are housed within their academic departments, but overseen centrally

“These models represent a continuum of degree of interaction between the coordinator and the student, the employer and the faculty”, say Coll and Eames (2000: 10), and the roles of placement coordinators varies significantly in accordance with the model. Roles may range from simply administrative, to substantially administrative in nature, to joint teaching and placement coordinating.

Coll and Eames (2000: 10) advocate for the third type model, where “coordinators hold joint appointments and are at least partly within faculty”. “In this model coordinators are subject specialists and have strong links with students, faculty, and deep knowledge of the business of the employer”. Continued support from industry is a significant success factor, and the securing quality placement opportunities often problematic. If employers (placement providers) “have a successful placement experience each time” the likelihood of repeat placements increases significantly. An optimum match of each student with her/his provider, is arguably a key factor. “Because coordinators also are subject specialists, they are able to relate effectively with industry professionals during site visits”; better equipped to assess the suitability of a site and accredit such for sound WPBL; “able to gain a good appreciation of an employer's needs”; and furthermore, able to act as conduits for collaborative research because they know the interests and abilities of faculty colleagues. Collaborative research potentially further strengthen links between the university and placement providers, resulting in additional tangible benefits from involvement. Nofemela (2023) indicates advantages versus disadvantages regarding considering which model to implement.

Five Australian universities explored a distributed leadership approach with regarding WIL (Patrick et al., 2014). “WIL leadership refers to the activities that surround the development, promotion, organisation, management and delivery of” WIL, the report qualifies (p. 4). The leadership of WIL takes place both within higher education institutions and at locations in industry and/or community where WPBL takes place, as well as by statutory, professional, or vocational bodies. WIL leaders are therefore practitioners who may teach, or host, support, employ or utilise, and engage with WIL students. Roles may either be formal or informal; and WIL leaders are drawn from various levels within institutions and organisations. To ensure quality student learning, the curriculum relies on shared oversight and guidance pertaining the learning experiences of students (p. 5). Five key domains of capabilities required by WIL leaders, illustrated in Figure 1 (p. 19), were identified across the spectrum.

WIL leadership is characterised in terms of ten dimensions: “discipline contexts, policy, resourcing, organisational culture, organisational structure and systems, external engagement, staff capability, pedagogy and curriculum, access and equity, and research and scholarship” (p. 6), with two aspects identified as being crucial (p. 18):

• Staff capability, particularly in the areas of learning design, embedding employability skills within the curriculum and creating meaningful opportunities for all, was identified as a key professional skill set of WIL leaders.
• Research and scholarship around WIL supported the need of WIL leaders to innovate and use innovation in an evidenced-based application of WIL concepts.

Harnessing a groundswell of interest, and nurturing of a ‘WIL community of practice’ to create momentum, is further advocated (p. 22)

Coll, R.K. & Eames, C. (2000). The role of the placement coordinator: An alternative model. Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 1(1), 9-14. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/APJCE_01_1_9_14.pdf

Cooper, L., Orrell, J. & Bowden, M. (2010). Work integrated learning, A guide to effective practice. London: Routledge.

Nofemela, F.R. (2023). How to establish a Co-op/WIL office. Southern African Society for Cooperative Education (SASCE) live training webinar held 5 September 2023.

Patrick, C.; Fallon, W.; Campbell, M.; Devinish, I.; Kay, J.; Lawson, J.; Russell, L.; Tayebjee, F. & Cretchley, P. (2014). Leading WIL: a distributed leadership approach to enhance work integrated learning. Sydney, New South Wales: Office for Learning and Teaching. Electronically accessible from: https://ltr.edu.au/resources/LE11_2084_Patrick_Report_2014.pdf

Workplace learning (WPL) and work-related learning (WRL) are associated with training activities such as continuing professional development (CPD)

Workplace learning (WPL) and work-related learning (WRL) “are more associated with training activities such as continuing professional development (CPD) courses.” Say Gerhardt and Mackenzie-Philps (2018: 409) They remark that “terms are [often] used extensively interchangeably with conflicting conceptualisations” which may results in confusion.

Gerhardt and Mackenzie-Philps (2018: 409) indicate that work integrated learning (WIL) is “a more encompassing term”, meaning including entirely or comprehensively, and differentiate “work-based learning (WBL) is what is learnt by working, by the actual undertaking of work activities”. It “questions the more traditional notion that knowledge is held and transferred by the privileged few through formal situations in pre-determined ways” and “specifically, enables accelerated access through transferable skills, initial professional preparation for the ‘real world’, explicit contextual professional development and the use of problem-based learning” (PBL). In contrast “to workplace learning (WPL) and work-related learning (WRL)”, WBL is furthermore linked “to academic learning and programmes”, they say.

They remark further that “generally, WIL are structured programmes of learning where work skills are practised or experienced in a work-like environment”; and elaborate that “only WBL is attached to an academic programme or course”. They indicate that “WIL will often involve online and blended learning (OBL) modes of delivery” or multimodal learning, because such modes “allows working adults access to learning anywhere at any time”. A positive correlation has been found “a between technology usage and the individual development of skills, knowledge, and productivity, i.e. self-efficacy.” (Gerhardt & Mackenzie-Philps, 2018: 409).

“Online technologies and social media innovations … enable progression as it facilitates access wherever you are”. Furthermore “virtual learning environments (VLEs) or learning management systems” (LMSs) as educational space, enhance learning say Gerhardt and Mackenzie-Philps (2018: 410) because of their popularity “among students as they ‘coordinate many different aspects of your study and can generally be used in flexible ways, when and where you choose’”. The VLE/LMS lend itself to facilitating communication; providing training, teaching material and resources; serving as self-testing and assessment portholes or as mediating tools; and supporting inter/tra-action and collaboration. Social networking sites (SNSs) “can further enhance learning, collaboration and engagement and can include forums, weblogs, social networks, video, images and podcasts”

Gerhardt, T. & Mackenzie-Philps, L. (2018). The challenges and opportunities of ICT in WIL, A case study among priests exploring the correlation and trajectory between effective WIL and ICT pervasiveness. Higher Education, Skills and Work-Based Learning, 8(4), 408-421. DOI 10.1108/HESWBL-07-2017-0045

Different forms, types or modalities of work-integrated learning (WIL)

The Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework (HEQSF) (South African Government, 2014) differentiates five forms work-integrated learning (WIL), and the imbedded WIL template, under section D (p. 8) of the Council on Higher Education (CHE, 2021), Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC) offline version of the online ‘Application for programme accreditation and qualification registration’, two more:

1. virtual or simulated learning,
2. work-directed theoretical learning (WDTL),
3. problem-based learning (PBL),
4. project-based learning (PjBL),
5. workplace-based learning (WPBL),
6. practicum placements,
7. service-learning, and so on.

The CHE’s Good Practice Guide (2011) advocates four distinct WIL curricular modalities, namely WDTL, PBL, PjBL and WPBL above. The eight definitions below were composed through consultation of several sources.

Practicum (plural practicums) placements	is a course/programme module, or part thereof, that involves involving activities emphasising the practical/clinical application of theory, knowledge and skills of the qualification curriculum; gaining on-the-job/vocation/professional experience; putting into practice; clinical/practical training; actual working in the area/field of study
Problem-based learning (PBL)	is a radical form of teaching which entail that ‘problems’, rather than academic subjects, as organising structure of the curriculum, with the main objective the acquisition of an extensive, integrated knowledge base. Problem-oriented learning is more commonly used and involves the inclusion of real-world scenarios for problem-based activities, assignments, and projects. Ill-structured problems stimulate the generation of multiple hypotheses or potential solutions. Ill-structured problems further allow students to observe, interview, and review records or documents to obtain needed information.
Project-based learning (PjBL)	involves learning through projects. Projects are either ‘real’ projects located in the world of work; or simulated with input from workplaces. Projects generally involve elements of research and supervision by both a university lecturer and workplace supervisor or mentor. PJBL enables the acquisition of an extensive, integrated knowledge base that students can draw on and apply to the analysis and solution of problems.
Service-learning	generally entails voluntary activities directed at specific community needs, applied learning and engaging in reflection to deepen understanding of what is being taught. It could be credit-bearing, if integrated into the curriculum of an academic programme and assessed as such., It may take place with an agency (usually a non-profit or social service group).
Simulated (or virtual) learning	means the learning and teaching technologies used to create artificial learning environments to enhance or replace a student’s actual experience with the world of work through simulations. For example, live projects, case studies, employer talks, role play, mentoring, and e-simulations.
Work-directed theoretical learning (WDTL)	enables the alignment of theoretical understanding with the practical or practice-based components and enabling students to apply such in the workplace. Presentations by workplace and/or professional practice may be used.
Work-integrated learning (WIL)	is used as an umbrella term to describe curricular, pedagogic and assessment practices, across a range of academic disciplines that integrate formal learning and workplace concerns. The International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning (IJWIL) defines WIL as "an educational approach that uses relevant work-based experiences to allow students to integrate theory with the meaningful practice of work as an intentional component of the curriculum. Defining elements of this educational approach require that students engage in authentic and meaningful work-related tasks, and must involve three stakeholders; the student, the university, and the workplace/community." (www.ijwil.org)
Workplace-based learning (WPBL)	happens when students are placed in work environments for the purposes of learning, which provides students with real life work experiences, in order internalise knowledge, skills and competencies, and gain insights through exposure to work by achieving specific outcomes. Both the HEQSF & CHE (2014) specify criteria for work(place)-based learning.

The Regulations (South African Government, 2018) for WPBL Agreements, lists nine forms of WPBL, requiring selection:

1. Apprenticeship
2. Learnership
3. Internship for the ‘N’ Diploma
4. Candidacy (postgrad for professional)
5. Student internship. Category A (for certificates & diplomas in HEQSF)
6. Student internship: Category B (requirement professional registration)
7. Student internship: Category C (for QCTO qualifications)
8. Student internship (SAQA qualification & vacation work)
9. Graduate internship (got qualification, to gain workplace experience)

Council on Higher Education (2011). Work-Integrated Learning: Good Practice Guide. HE Monitor No. 12, August 2011. Pretoria: IeCommunications. Electronically accessible from https://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/Higher_Education_Monitor_12.pdf

Council on Higher Education (2014). Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Programme Accreditation Criteria, pp. 81 – 107. In Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide. Electronically accessible from https://www.saide.org.za/documents/CHE_-_Distance_Higher_Education.pdf

Council on Higher Education (2021). Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC) offline version of the online ‘Application for programme accreditation and qualification registration’. https://www.che.ac.za/publications/submissions/heqc-offline-application

South African Government. (2014), Department of Higher Education and Training, Government Notice No 819. Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework. Government Gazette No. 38116, 17 October 2014. Electronically accessible from https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201410/38116gon819.pdf

South African Government. (2018). Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) workplace based learning programme agreement regulations. Department of Higher Education and Training. Government Gazette No 42037, 16 November 2018. Skills Development Act (Act 97 of 1998). https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201811/42037gon1241.pdf

The ‘e’ in eWIL representing entrepreneurial or embedded (work-integrated learning)

While doing literature searches on electronic work-integrated learning (eWIL), came across:

• Entrepreneurial Work-Integrated Learning (EWIL)
• Supervised Entrepreneurial Work-Integrated Learning (sEWIL)
• Embedding Work Integrated Learning (EWIL)

It used to frustrate me how authors coin terms without apparently considering or recognising existing meanings, often giving total new meanings to concepts in use. The word coin, in this context, means “to make; invent; [or] fabricate” an expression or phrase (Dictionary.com). Coin originates from Latin (cuneus), French (cuigne) and Middle English (coyn(e), coygne)—a stamping die to emboss a piece of metal to be issued by an authority, such as government, for use as money.

Eisenstein (2022: 2) indicates that experiential learning is preferred as pedagogy for entrepreneurship education; that work-integrated learning (WIL) in particular is gaining attention across higher education; and that “nine types have been identified: apprenticeship, Co-operative education, internships, entrepreneurship, service learning, applied research, professional/clinical practicum, field placement, and work experience”. Eisenstein (2022: 1) further indicates that there is “an increasing interest in entrepreneurship education across the disciplines, engineering programs included”, where “entrepreneurship education is delivered through the application of work-integrated learning pedagogy”; with “Supervised Entrepreneurial Work-Integrated Learning (sEWIL) is a particular modality of EWIL”. Eisenstein (2022: 1) explains that “engineering students learn about entrepreneurship through participation in a start-up working environment, where students directly observe and participate in the entrepreneurial working environment”. Tacit entrepreneurial knowledge is acquired through an authentic real-world learning environment and purposeful reflection, says Eisenstein.

Embedded Work Integrated Learning (EWIL) is explained by Doolan, Piggott, Chapman & Rycroft (2019: 91) as a specific model of Work Integrated Learning (WIL) where “students work with industry in small blocks of time at regular intervals throughout semester focussing on reflective learning in authentic work environments”. The structure and purpose of WIL and EWIL differ and “one cannot be substituted for the other”, say Doolan et al (2019: 92). WIL placements are often experienced by students as an intense time of day-to-day practice and obligations with little distance for detailed reflection on own learning. In contrast, “Embedded Work Integrated Learning (EWIL) strategically threads learning and reflection together over time”, which allows for deeper reflection and improvements of practices.

Doolan et al (2019: 93) present a case study of a degree which make use of both WIL and EWIL, “one where students spend a significant block of time working directly with industry partners … and another, where the WIL placement is strategically threaded or explicitly embedded into a subject throughout a semester and into subjects throughout the degree”. The inclusion of Embedded Work Integrated Learning (EWIL) “provides a slower more controlled approach to the practice of critical reflection guiding the practical application of skills”. EWIL is deemed “an effective pedagogical strategy to ensure students develop employability skills”, by Doolan et al (2019: 105), in “that all stakeholders benefit”. Students become more employable, industry gains highly skilled potential workers, and the reputation of universities is enhanced. However, the relationships between tertiary institutions and industry partners are crucial to successful EWIL.

Dictionary.com. https://www.dictionary.com/browse/coin

Doolan, M., Piggott, B., Chapman, S., & Rycroft, P. (2019). The Benefits and Challenges of Embedding Work Integrated Learning: A Case Study in a University Education Degree Program. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 44(6). http://dx.doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2018v44n6.6

Eisenstein, A. (2022). Engaging Engineering Students with Engineering Entrepreneurship and the Start-Up Working Environment through Supervised Entrepreneurial Work-Integrated Learning. Proceedings of the Canadian Engineering Education Association (CEEA). https://doi.org/10.24908/pceea.vi.15845

Micro-placements are short periods of individual or teamwork on highly focused projects

Despite the good results yielded by work-integrated learning (WIL), the implementation is often hampered by significant challenges, indicate Mayombe (2022: 310), who “refers to any learning activity or programme which integrates theory with practice to provide trainees with industry experience”. Challenges relate to both (i) design and (ii) resources, as well as (iii) maintaining relationships with relevant stakeholders, who may have expectations, needs and interests different from educational institutions. WIL “refers to an educational and training approach that integrates academic and workplace practices for the joint benefit of students and workplaces”, it “allows the insertion of relevant real-world learning into the design of the curriculum that produces students who are prepared to enter the labour market and meet demands of employers”. Mayombe (2022: 311) emphasises the importance of stakeholders to commitment to play their roles for effectiveness of WIL programmes, stating that “commitment of the stakeholders is a catalytic of allocating appropriate WIL placement which facilitates opportunities for trainees to work in organisations”. Mayombe (2022: 313) indicates that “it is the responsibility of the WIL custodian to maintain relationships with key stakeholders and obtain their commitment”.

“The work-experience component of work-integrated learning [programmes] can be achieved through” different models, “characterised by flexibility in terms of the length, timing and frequency of the practical component” say Mayombe (2022: 312), for example:

• The alternating model of WIL, which comprises students alternating between months of practical work experience at their sponsoring companies, and the theoretical components at their respective learning institutions
• A mixture of alternating and parallel study, consisting of allowing students to complete the academic component (theoretical element) while at the same time work part-time at the sponsoring company. Often model of WIL entail full-time in-service training at the end of the study programme.
• Often students are required to apply to an employer for placement for a specific period, to get the relevant practical experience, sometimes with different employers or industries.

Bracken, Patton & Lindsay (2022: 481) state that work-integrated learning (WIL) is “an umbrella term for a range of approaches and strategies that integrate theory with the practice of work within a purposefully designed curriculum”, but add that the range of underpinning pedagogical approaches caused multiple terms that are often used interchangeably causing confusion, such as “practice-based learning, professional practice, problem-based-learning, experiential learning, workplace learning, and practice-based education”. The diversity of WIL is further demonstrated by a diverse range of strategies and approaches such as fully immersed in-situ work placements, projects, fieldwork, and simulations. There are further emerging innovative WIL approaches such as micro-placements, hackathons, and incubators. Dean & Campbell (2020: 357) refer to these approaches as beyond workplace-based experiences, that “moved away from requiring extensive time in workplaces to engaging students through short, authentic activities”. Green, Seaman & Smith (2022: 528) align these kinds of short-term placements with the definition of micro-placements offered by Kay et al. (2019: 405), namely “short periods in the workplace ranging from two to 10 days where students work individually or in teams on highly focused projects”, indicating that micro-placements occur in a diverse range of sectors.

The Edinburgh Chamber of Commerce issued the following news release on 24 & 29 April 2021 respectively:

Could your Business Support Edinburgh Napier University with a Micro-Placement?

Edinburgh Napier Business School are exploring introducing a 'Micro-Placement' experience for our 3rd & 4th Year Undergraduate BA (Hons) Accounting and Law students and they are interested to hear from companies who might be interested in hosting a student, over the summer period.

This will be short-term optional, extra-curricular career exploration opportunity designed to provide mutual benefit to both student and employer, with students gaining an insight into an industry related to their field of study and employers a chance to meet with ambitious students. As this is a pilot, they are very open to any suggestions that you might have! If you are interested, or would like to find out more please contact Sharon Homan-James, Employer Engagement Partner, Business School on email [email protected]

Mayombe (2022) uses the term micro-placements 27 times, indicating among other (p. 317) that students sign fixed-term contracts with the host companies, for the duration of the micro-placement. For host companies, micro-placements often serve as strategy for human resources development and recruitment of new employees. The number of academic credits for micro-placements vary based on the type and the outcome. Mentoring during and quality of micro-placements are important considerations. Sometimes micro-placements of students in host companies are converted to formal employment upon graduation. Adequate mentorship and supervision enable students “to become ready for future careers and be attractive to the prospective employers” (p. 324).

Bibliography:

Bracken, L., Patton, N. & Lindsay, E. (2022). Compulsory work-integrated learning: A solution for equity propositioning and future proofing. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 23(4), 481-493. https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_23_4_527_542.pdf

Dean, B.A. & Campbell, M. (2020). Reshaping work-integrated learning in a post-COVID-19 world of work. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 21(4), 356-364. https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_21_4_355_364.pdf

Edinburgh Napier Business School. (2021). Could your Business Support Edinburgh Napier University with a Micro-Placement? Plus Company Updates. Gale General OneFile, https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=ITOF&u=usa_itw&id=GALE|A659693622&v=2.1&it=r&sid=summon&asid=9270b281

Green, E., Seaman, C.E. & Smith, B. (2022). Exploring localized learning during a short-term health student placement. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 23(4), 527-542. https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_23_4_527_542.pdf

Iipinge, S.M., Batholmeus, P.N. & Pop. C. (2020). Using simulations to improve skills needed for work-integrated learning before and during COVID-19 in Namibia. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 21(5), 531-543. https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_21_5_531_543.pdf

Kay, J., Ferns, S., Russell, L., Smith, J. & Winchester-Seeto, T. (2019). The emerging future: Innovative models of work-integrated learning. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 20(4), 401-413. https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_20_4_401_413.pdf

Mayombe, C. (2022). Partnership with stakeholders as innovative model of work-integrated learning for unemployed youths. Higher Education, Skills and Work-Based Learning, 12 (2), 309-327. https://0-doi-org.oasis.unisa.ac.za/10.1108/HESWBL-03-2021-0065

Zegwaard, K.E., Pretti, T.J. & Rowe, A.D. (2020). Responding to an international crisis: The adaptability of the practice of work-integrated learning. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 21(4), 317-330. https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_21_4_317_330.pdf

Work-integrated learning as means to entrepreneurial learning, and vice versa

The phrase ‘learning-by-doing’ is well known and often accredited to John Dewey, but also Aristotle. By integrated doing (work) into the curriculum (learning) the likelihood of work-ready graduates is enhanced. Therefore, if an aim or expected outcome of a learning programme is entrepreneurial orientation, incorporating such learning opportunities in the curriculum seems necessary.

The converse, providing work-integrated learning (WIL) opportunities through start-ups, incubator initiatives, or entrepreneurial activities, is quite different. The adverb ‘vice-versa’, means ‘in reverse order from the way something has been stated’, is derived from two Latin words vicis change + vertere to turn — literally relations being reversed or the other way around.

In response to the COVID-19 pandemic WIL placement challenges, the University of Cincinnati made extensive efforts towards “facilitating student engagement in new forms of WIL” (Alanson et al. 2020: 509). Students were presented with “a suite of nine options: Study abroad, service learning, research, career-related travel, international experience, creative practice, entrepreneurship, leadership, or open source development”. The definitions of two of the mentioned options, taken from Table 1 (p. 510) are presented below.

It is further deemed necessary to point out that “entrepreneurship extends beyond the creation of new businesses”, but that ‘entrepreneurial’ comprises characteristics such as “autonomy, innovativeness, risk-taking, proactiveness, and competitive aggression” that are often “linked to organizational performance, increased profits, growth, and innovation” (Pretti et al. 2020: 451).

Alanson, E.R., Alanson, E.M., Arthur, B., Burdette, A., Cooper, C. & Sharp, M. (2020). Re-envisioning work-integrated learning during a pandemic: Cincinnati’s experiential explorations program. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, Special Issue, 21(5), 505-519. https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_21_5_505_519.pdf.

Pretti, I.J., Parrott, P., Hoskyn, K., Fannon, A-M., Church, D. & Arsenault, C. (2020). The role of work-integrated learning in the development of entrepreneurs. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 21(4), 451-466. https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_21_4_451_466.pdf

Entrepreneurship, incubators, or start-ups as emerging WIL model

Conventional approaches to work-integrated learning (WIL), such as 3 – 12-month work placements, also called cooperative education, sandwich programmes or practicums, are not only resource intensive, but do place additional demands on industry partners, say Kay, Ferns, Russell, Smith and Winchester-Seeto (2019: 402). Small to medium enterprises (SMEs), namely those with fewer than 200 employees, comprise a significant proportion of the Australian economy, say Kay et al. (2019: 402). However, due to limited resources, staff constraints, and restrictions of funds, it is generally difficult for SMEs to engage in offering WIL opportunities. Kay et al. (2019: 403) observe that a recurring theme in the literature is the challenges universities experience in successfully engaging with SMEs. The “mismatch between the needs of universities and those of SMEs is a key reason for the lack of engagement from SMEs” they remark. Factors such as inflexible university schedules, as well as strict timing, duration of placements, type of student activities, supervision requirements and student support expectations, impact the capacity of SMEs to engage in WIL. There exists a need for willingness to working around these disparities, they indicate.

Universities found themselves competing for placement opportunities, which resulted in trends of “enhanced engagement with community organizations; greater flexibility in the structure of WIL experiences; an increase in on-campus opportunities; a focus on the use of technology to provide equitable WIL experiences in a virtual world; and a rise in third party providers who broker opportunities for students” (Kay et al. 2019: 405). Table 1 (p. 406) summarises the trends identified through a research project, funded by the Australian Technology Network (ATN), as well as innovative practices that emerged because of trends. The research involved three stages. The first stage entailed the review of literature from contemporary peer-reviewed academic literature, grey literature (such as government and industry reports) and conference proceedings with the aim of identifying emerging WIL models. During the second stage the emerging models were explored through ten international, national and local workshops with some 450 WIL practitioners, webinars and WIL communities of practice meetings. The third stage involved in-depth consideration and analysis through 55 semi-structured interviews with WIL practitioners, industry partners and students that directly experienced emerging WIL strategies. The three stages iterative process serve to validate the literature review. The emerging models were clustered into five innovative WIL models, namely (a) micro-placements, (b) online projects or placements, (c) hackathons, competitions and events, (d) WIL incubators and start-ups, and (e) consulting.

Kay et al. (2019: 407) define incubators or start-ups as “a workspace that provides support for startups including mentoring, information, networks, office space and resources for the early-stage development of new business ventures. WIL students can be placed in incubators to support ventures. A start-up is an entrepreneurial venture which is typically a young, small and recently emerged business that aims to create a new product, process or service to meet a need that is not currently being offered elsewhere in the market. The first stages of a start-up are commonly financed and can attract further support once it has proved its potential. Increasingly WIL students are undertaking placements or projects in or for start-up businesses”

The Canadian body ‘Co-operative Education and Work-Integrated Learning Canada’ (CEWIL Canada) webpage ‘Type of WIL: entrepreneurship’ qualifies ‘What is Entrepreneurship?’ that it “allows a student to leverage resources, space, mentorship and/or funding to engage in the early-stage development of business start-ups and/or to advance external ideas that address real-world needs for academic credit”. The webpage imbeds a YouTube video ‘What is entrepreneurial WIL?’ worth watching. The webpage further imbeds “a document that outlines in detail how Entrepreneurial WIL engages students and benefits employers”, which elaborates that “An entrepreneurship Work-Integrated Learning (WIL) experience provides students with an opportunity to start and build their own business. Often, these experiences are supported through school-supported incubators or accelerators. They allow students to leverage resources, space, mentorship, and funding to engage in business startups’ early-stage development and advance external ideas that address real-world problems for academic credit”.

Table 2 (Kay et al. 2019: 407) portrays 15 common features clustered across three key areas, namely stakeholder engagement, design elements, and co-designing with partners.

Table 3 (Kay et al. 2019: 409) represents the alignment of the features outlined in Table 2 with the five emerging models, showing the features that are characteristic of each model. Kay et al. (2019: 208) emphasise that stakeholder engagement is fundamental to all emerging WIL models, and that attention should be given to co-designing with industry, community, students, and alumni. They highlight the importance mutually beneficial and collaborative partnerships.

Table 4 (Kay et al. 2019: 410) gives an overview of the enablers identified through the workshops and interviews with students, host organizations and university staff.

Co-operative Education and Work-Integrated Learning Canada (CEWIL Canada). Type of WIL: Entrepreneurship. https://cewilcanada.ca/CEWIL/CEWIL/Resources/Employer-Community-Partners/Employer-Tool-Kit-Folder/Entrepreneurship.aspx

Co-operative Education and Work-Integrated Learning Canada (CEWIL Canada). (2021). What is entrepreneurial WIL? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vQU-wrrt_8c

Co-operative Education and Work-Integrated Learning Canada (CEWIL Canada). (2021). Entrepreneurship for WIL partners. https://cewilcanada.ca/common/Uploaded%20files/Public%20Resources/WIL%20Resources/entrepreneurship__8.5x11.pdf

Kay, J., Ferns, S., Russell, L., Smith, J. & Winchester-Seeto, T. (2019). The emerging future: Innovative models of work-integrated learning. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 20(4), 401-413. https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_20_4_401_413.pdf

Work-based learning (WBL) is one form of work-integrated learning (WIL)

The South African Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework (HEQSF, 2014: §34, p. 17) states that some qualifications incorporate work-integrated learning (WIL) into the curriculum, and that “WIL may take various forms including simulated learning, work-directed theoretical learning, problem-based learning, project-based learning and workplace-based learning”. Similarly, the Council on Higher Education (CHE, 2014: 34) reference regarding curriculum design, development and delivery for distance education in a digital era CHE (2011: 16-21) specify different curricular modalities namely:

• Work-directed theoretical learning.
• Problem-based learning.
• Project-based learning.
• Workplace learning.

Other CHE (2004) publications, such as the ‘Criteria for Institutional Audits’ and the ‘Criteria for Programme Accreditation’ respectively, specified work-based learning; and indicate that ‘experiential learning’ is a term that has historically been used within the former technikon sector for work-based learning.

Gerhardt and Annon (2023: 225) define the meanings of their use of the terms work-based learning (WBL) and work-integrated learning (WIL) as follow:

• Work-Based Learning (WBL): A distinctive pedagogical practice due to the negotiation of learning which follows the needs of the workplace rather than a professional body or subject discipline with learning occurring principally in the workplace and is concerned with the practice of work (Talbot & Lilley, 2014).
• Work-Integrated Learning (WIL): The intersection and engagement of theoretical and practice learning (Cooper et al., 2010, p. xiii), an umbrella term for a model and process of curricular experiential education that formally and intentionally integrates a student’s academic studies within a workplace or practice setting (CEWIL Canada, 2021).

The Canadian body ‘Co-operative Education and Work-Integrated Learning Canada’ (CEWIL Canada) illustrates WIL as follow — take note of the 2nd (**) side note:

The proponents of experiential learning failed to date to make a convincing academic case for work-based learning, say Gerhardt and Annon (2023: 211), and indicate that UNESCO (2014) considers work-based learning as a subset of experience-based learning. The notion of “learning that occurs through undertaking real work, through the production of real goods and services, whether this work is paid or unpaid” is stated, as well as that work-based learning entails “a partnership between universities and employers, delivering learning that meets the needs of the learners and employers, resulting in an accredited qualification”.

Gerhardt and Annon (2023: 220) concludes “that rather than WIL and WBL being incompatible, that WBL, as a different form of WIL, inhabit the space, the tension across disciplines, and in that space, as experts, produce practical knowledge”. They state “that WBL as a different form of WIL, finds meaning and creates meaning in the liminal zones across disciplines” and that one of WBL’s important outcomes is to “produce work-ready professional citizens, through experiential-transformative-experience-based learning (andragogy - person and personnel)”. WBL is a unique pedagogical field, and this uniqueness creates boundaries.

Gerhardt and Annon (2023: 209) raise the question: “Do different pedagogical approaches (modes) justify the conceptual differences?” They comment that “distinction raises questions about power discourses, ‘boundary’ assumptions, and thus impacting professional identity/status”. They (p. 210) indicate that those responsible for work-integrated learning acquire a dual identity, being both an academic and being practical, a pracademic, an insider/outsider having diverse backgrounds and experience, which results in a bricoleur (a French word describing a handyperson who makes use of available tools to complete a task). They elaborate that bricoleur practitioners have a broadened repertoire and a heterogeneous approach, enabling the understand that “the frontier of knowledge work rests in the liminal zones where disciplines collide” (citing Kincheloe & Berry, 2004, p. 80) and the implosion of disciplinarity, or thinking associated with disciplinarity. Those that inhabit the zones of WIL/WBL practitioners “become experts in mastering this space, sharing similar pedagogical approaches, and avoiding the creation of boundaries” (p. 210).

Co-operative Education and Work-Integrated Learning Canada (CEWIL Canada). What is work-integrated learning (WIL)? https://cewilcanada.ca/CEWIL/CEWIL/About-Us/Work-Integrated-Learning.aspx?hkey=ed772be2-00d0-46cd-a5b8-873000a18b41

Council on Higher Education (2014). Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide. https://www.saide.org.za/documents/CHE_-_Distance_Higher_Education.pdf

Council on Higher Education (2011). Work-Integrated Learning: Good Practice Guide. HE Monitor No. 12, August 2011. Pretoria: IeCommunications. Electronically accessible from https://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/Higher_Education_Monitor_12.pdf

Council on Higher Education (2004). Criteria for Institutional Audits. https://www.che.ac.za/publications/criteria/criteria-institutional-audits

Gerhardt, T, & Annon, P. (2023). Towards conceptual clarity: Pedagogical liminality. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 24(2), 209-225. https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_24_2_209_225.pdf

South African Government (2014), Department of Higher Education and Training, Government Notice No 819. Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework. Government Gazette No. 38116, 17 October 2014. https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201410/38116gon819.pdf

Significance of the I in WIL

The noun interrelation [in-ter-ri-ley-shuhn] is defined by Dictionary.com as “reciprocal relation”. It means the “state of things being closely connected to each other and maybe affecting each other”, and “the verb interrelate means to be connected in this way or to cause things to become connected in this way”. The adjective reciprocal originates from the Latin reciproc(us), meaning returning, “given or felt by each toward the other”, expressing a mutual relationship, explains Dictionary.com.

The ‘I’ in work-integrated learning (WIL) pertains to integration of workplace experiences into the learning curriculum. The International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning (IJWIL) defines ‘WIL’ as "an educational approach that uses relevant work-based experiences to allow students to integrate theory with the meaningful practice of work as an intentional component of the curriculum. Defining elements of this educational approach require that students engage in authentic and meaningful work-related tasks, and must involve three stakeholders; the student, the university, and the workplace/community." (emphasis added to highlight the interrelation). Examples of practice given by IJWIL “include off-campus, workplace immersion activities such as work placements, internships, practicum, service learning, and cooperative education (Co-op), and on-campus activities such as work-related projects/competitions, entrepreneurships, student-led enterprise, etc. WIL is related to, but not the same as, the fields of experiential learning, work-based learning, and vocational education and training.”

The Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework (HEQSF) of the Department of Higher Education and Training (South African Government 2014: 17) states that the incorporation of work-integrated learning (WIL) into the curriculum is characteristic of vocational and professionally-oriented qualifications. The HEQSF includes the following higher education qualification descriptors:

• Advanced Certificate programmes (NQF Exit Level 6, p. 28), which typically include a work-integrated learning (WIL) component.
• Diploma programmes (NQF Exit Level 6, p. 29), which typically include an appropriate work-integrated learning (WIL) component; and further states (p. 30): “Candidates who complete the 240-credit Diploma may enter an Advanced Diploma upon successful completion of a work-integrated learning component or a combination of work-integrated learning and coursework equivalent to 120 credits that is approved and accredited by an education provider and/or a professional body and a QC.”
• Master's degree (Professional, NQF Exit Level 9, p. 38): “In some cases, a professional master's degree may be designed in consultation with a professional body or fulfil all or part of the requirements for professional registration or recognition, and may include appropriate forms of work-integrated learning.”

The incorporation of WIL as outlined above requires interrelation and reciprocity. The latter, reflected as the last letter (R) in a mnemonic about the essence of cooperative education, as former Technikon education philosophy: INC-CEL-FAR, standing for IN (industry needs) + CC (continuous consultation) + EL (experiential learning) + FA (faculty abreast) + R (reciprocity) = Cooperative Education.

The HEQSF further, in §34 (p. 17, emphasis added), differentiates various forms of work-integrated learning (WIL), namely:

• simulated learning [also known as simulated work experiences (SWEs)]
• work-directed theoretical learning [WDTL]
• problem-based learning [PBL]
• project-based learning [PjBL]
• workplace-based learning [WPBL] — Three Council on Higher Education publications (CHE: 2004 & 2014) provide criteria with regard to work-based learning (WBL). These criteria do not necessary apply to the other forms of WIL than work-based learning.

In §35 (p. 17, emphasis added) of the HEQSF, it is stated that where the WIL component “takes the form of workplace-based learning, it is the responsibility of institutions that offer programmes requiring credits for such learning to place students into appropriate workplaces” and adds that “such workplace-based learning must be appropriately structured, properly supervised and assessed”. Note that the institution’s role is not limited to ‘placement’ but extends to structured learning, proper supervision (mentoring), and assessment (both formative and summative), which suggest good interrelation (or reciprocity).

The South African Council on Higher Education, as independent statutory body and Quality Council for Higher Education (CHE: n.d.), published (CHE: 2011) a ‘Good Practice Guide’ towards work-integrated learning which deliberated the various modes mentioned above. The CHE recognises that “arrangements for work-based learning will likely be more complex in distance provision due to the more distributed nature of students and the geographic footprint of distance programmes which may even extend beyond national borders” (CHE: 2014, Criterion 15, emphases added), but states that “appropriate arrangements will be needed for placement, mentoring and supervision for a more distributed student body to ensure an equivalent learning experience across a wider range of contexts” and reiterates the “coordination of work-based learning must be done effectively, including adequate infrastructure, effective communication, recording of progress made, monitoring and mentoring”, including the following:

• Learning agreements or contracts implemented through which the student, the higher education institution, the employer (workplace-based learning provider) and mentor negotiate, approve, adhere to agreed roles and responsibilities, and assess the objectives and outcomes of the learning process
• Regular and effective communication taking place and good working relations are maintained between the institution, students, mentors and employers involved
• System (both at the institution and at the place of workplace-based learning) in operation to regularly and systematically monitor and record the progress of each student’s learning experience
• Mentoring system that enables each student to recognise his/her strengths and weaknesses, to develop existing and new abilities, and to gain knowledge of work practices

In addition to these generic statutory requirements, qualification-specific statutory bodies such as the Engineering Council of South Africa (ECSA), Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA), South African Council for Social Service Professions (SACSSP), South African Nursing Council (SANC), and the South African Veterinary Council (SAVC), and vocational bodies do specify additional criteria.

CHE (Council on Higher Education)

Council on Higher Education (n.d.) Legislative and policy mandate. Electronically accessible from https://www.che.ac.za/about-us/legislative-and-policy-mandate

Council on Higher Education (2004). Higher Education Quality Committee. Criteria for Programme Accreditation. Electronically accessible from https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/che2020-c5efd.appspot.com/o/website%2Fyxqlkgy7gwo1.pdf?alt=media&token=c1ea5d6e-2e05-463d-9f2b-bbf92d4b402b

Council on Higher Education (2004). Higher Education Quality Committee. Criteria for Institutional Audits. Electronically accessible from https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/che2020-c5efd.appspot.com/o/website%2Fjh3xgy9ub11.pdf?alt=media&token=aa1b8117-5414-4e70-a363-50dc924a7d42

Council on Higher Education (2004). Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC). Criteria for Institutional Audits. https://www.che.ac.za/publications/criteria/criteria-institutional-audits

Council on Higher Education (2014). Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Programme Accreditation Criteria, pp. 81 – 107. In Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide. Electronically accessible from https://www.saide.org.za/documents/CHE_-_Distance_Higher_Education.pdf

International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning (IJWIL). Home page. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/

Enhancing graduate employability through work-integrated learning could be a risky business

Extensive research has been done about how work-integrated learning (WIL) could enhance graduate employability, indicate de Zwaan and Grant-Smith (2022: 497). However, despite the apparent benefits it can be “… a risky business for universities’ due to the strategic, financial, legal and reputational risks it presents, particularly in being able to guarantee a sufficient supply of high quality work placements” say de Zwaan and Grant-Smith (2022: 502). Including prerequisite WIL may “result in a significant increase in administrative responsibilities for higher education institutions” they caution. Furthermore, “because students on work placement are not employees and therefore are not subject to many of the statutory protections employers are obliged to provide to employees”.

“Successful work placements depend on a strong tripartite relationship between the student, the WIL workplace, and the university”, which “needs to be based on a common understanding of the learning goals of the placement” and requires “careful management of both student and employer expectations of placements”, remark de Zwaan and Grant-Smith (2022: 502). Furthermore, “close communication between the university and host organization, including an honest appraisal of the placement student’s needs, abilities, and weaknesses, so that the placement program can be built around addressing or managing the impact of these” is needed. “Host employers [further] need to understand universities’ resource limitations … and must be prepared to provide appropriate on-the-job training and supervision if a student is to benefit from the work placement”. For WIL to succeed, “universities must be prepared to take a proactive role in negotiating with employers on their responsibilities as WIL workplaces”, as well as “to review partnerships with employers who have had repeated complaints raised against them”. The aforementioned “can only be achieved via a high level of institutional oversight, particularly in screening the suitability of potential WIL workplaces”. It is also necessary, say de Zwaan and Grant-Smith (2022: 502) to educate “students about their workplace rights and responsibilities prior to placement”, as well as “providing appropriate complaints mechanisms for students to voice concerns regarding their placements without fear of reprisal”.

Different forms of WIL are distinguished. “A useful typology for distinguishing between types of work experience conceptualized along two key dimensions: the degree of participatory discretion and the purpose of the experience” is, for example, reflected in Table 2 (from de Zwaan & Grant-Smith, 2022: 498). Completion of a work placement (also labelled an internship) as part of a degree programme normally counts as credits towards the qualification. Supervised work placements involve application of learned theories at a host workplace, and the development of skills. The duration varies depending on the discipline, and the registration or accreditation requirements of the profession, ranging from a few notional hours up to extended periods. There is furthermore significant diversity regarding how work placements are organized and monitored. In fields such as education, nursing, or health sciences with long traditions of clinical training (or ‘WIL’) and relatively large numbers of students; high levels of institutional oversight (including identification, accreditation of suitability of sites, and entering into agreements) and the matching of students with suitable opportunities, take place. However, many do require that students actively engage (like recruitment practices) in the process of securing a placement where the institution would advertise available placement opportunities and students apply, involving somewhat of a competitive application process. Some institutions, however, require that students take direct responsibility for securing and negotiating their own placements.

Although “unpaid work placements are increasingly being positioned as an employability panacea … recent research has shown that students participating in work placements can experience significant levels of psychological stress, social isolation, study/life imbalance and be exposed to exploitative or unlawful work practices”, state de Zwaan and Grant-Smith (2022: 500). ‘Panacea’, the ancient Greek goddess of healing, originates from panákeia equivalent to panake-, stem of panakḗs ‘all-healing’ (pan- ‘all’ + akḗs ‘a cure’). Unpaid internships, however, do not necessary take into consideration the “potential negative impacts on participants’ social, psychological, and economic wellbeing” say de Zwaan and Grant-Smith (2022: 500). “Financial stress and hardship can also impact students’ emotional and physical health and general wellbeing as students who are struggling financially experience more stress, anxiety, and depression”, they add. Work placements furthermore require significant time commitments from students, as well as significant risks of conflict with regard to the various roles of students.

Diversity in student populations may present several challenges regarding equity in high-quality work placements, “particularly for women, those from lower socio-economic backgrounds, and [also] international students” say de Zwaan and Grant-Smith (2022: 501). Often women are “disadvantaged due to their caring responsibilities”, and “placements during normal working hours can increase childcare costs or require alternative care arrangements to be made”. “When placements are located far from home the transport burden can be greater for women based on their mobilities of care”, as well as possibly safety concerns. “Students who are financially independent of their parents” or relatives; or “relying on paid employment to survive” or taking care of siblings; may incur considerable financial stress. These inequalities “means that students who possess significant financial capital or parental support may be more likely to be able to afford to undertake extended placements or engage in placements away from their local area”, which in turn may further impact post-graduation employment opportunities”. “Cultural differences, language skills and racism” may adversely impact international placements.

Service learning is proposed by de Zwaan and Grant-Smith (2022: 503-4) as a practical alternative to work placements. By providing services to disadvantaged individuals and non-profit organisations while supervised offer important learning opportunities and client interaction. “Service learning is distinguishable from volunteering or pro bono work in that its primary focus is on reciprocity and learning while meeting the needs of a community”.

de Zwaan, L. and Grant-Smith, D. (2022) More than mandatory work placements: The role of work-integrated learning in preparing financial planning graduates for the professional year. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 23(4), 495-508. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_23_4_495_508.pdf.

Dictionary.com https://www.dictionary.com/browse/panacea

‘Career education is considered one of many quality indicators of WIL’

“Career education is considered one of many quality indicators of WIL … providing both occupational and work-readiness preparation”, say Young, Hermon, Cardilini and Binek (2022: 445). “It is part of an important strategy to embed work-integrated learning (WIL) into undergraduate degree programs within Australian universities to enhance employability outcomes”, they say and remark that “there is clear evidence that employability enhancements are most effective if course-wide employability-related learning outcomes are valued, planned for, and delivered”.

Young et al. (2022: 445) report in a third of three articles about “investigating the renewal of a foundational work-integrated learning (WIL) subject”. They report on their action-research project approach, “how shifts in thinking and practice arose”. In the case study they describe how “the methodological approach to the project was fundamental to the curriculum review and renewal for a single subject (one of the intended outcomes of the project) and unexpectedly, a formal re-thinking of embedded WIL approaches to undergraduate programs”. They demonstrate changes associated with three inquiry domains, namely (p. 446):

• Domain 1, the ‘what domain’, explored what needed to be re-designed, in particular, the pedagogical rationale and approach for revising an existing WIL unit to focus on career education curriculum preparation
• Domain 2, the ‘experience domain’ examined student self-perceptions of shifting employability understandings, and then how the notion of ‘learning gains’ led to a strategic push relating to the scaffolding of career education curricula across the Faculty
• Domain 3, the ‘how domain’, is investigated here for the way in which changes relate not only to subject matter enhancement, but also to professional capacity building, and surfacing of wider-reaching programmatic considerations to WIL

Important to note that they found that “WIL affects whole-of-program and even Faculty-wide culture shifts to scaffolded WIL approaches” — “a vertical and horizontal scaffolding of Faculty-wide WIL curriculum enhancement began” and “the project outcomes demonstrate how a vision for a core STEM-centric foundation career education subject led to broader educational reform relating to student employability”.

Young, K., Hermon, K., Cardilini, A. & Binek, C. (2022). Action-research approach: Building capacity and enhancing work-integrated learning curricula. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 23(4), 445-461. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_23_4_445_461.pdf

A taxonomy of undergraduate work-integrated learning practices

The constructed taxonomy (Figure 1 below) is derived from examples and suggestions obtained from four stakeholder groups, say Neall, Cooney and Oppert (2022: 518). The taxonomy maps a range of practices in accordance two axes (or principles for effectiveness); namely vertically ‘task authenticity’ (how closely a task resembles professional level challenges) and horizontally ‘proximity to industry’ (how closely the context resembles a professional environment). The mapped practices may “be conducted virtually, practically and on an individual or group level depending on the resources available”. The four main stakeholder groups include (a) psychology graduates, (b) industry leaders, (c) higher education work-integrated learning staff, and (d) psychology accreditation council staff. The aim of the research had been to better support undergraduate psychology students to successfully enter into meaningful employment.

A cohort of Australian psychology graduates were struggling to make successful transitions to field-specific employment. Although there exists a growing demand for mental health/psychological support, there is also a deficit of appropriately trained professionals. These psychology graduates are a unique allied health cohort in that the undergraduate programme includes understanding of human physical and emotional behaviour and cognition. Graduates may enter a wide range of industry sectors, such as promotion of health, marketing, human resources, coaching, policy making, and community services. However, graduates often struggle to gain meaningful employment. Neall, Cooney and Oppert (2022: 509) believe that a “systematic integration of authentic WIL [work-integrated learning] into undergraduate psychology degrees may offset this lack of industry exposure”. They indicate that WIL has proven to develop of a range of professional and personal outcomes, including increased employability and work readiness through theory-to-practice application and professional skill development, among others.

Work-integrated learning (WIL) encapsulates a wide range of practice-based and experiential learning models and modes, such as work-based learning, project-based work, service learning, volunteering, internships, clinical placements, simulations, fieldwork, and practicums. The quality of WIL is dependent on robust industry partnerships, adequate preparation, active and authentic engagement, sound supervision, feedback, debriefing of students in order to improve work readiness in students.

Neall, A.M., Cooney, O. & Oppert, M.L. (2022). Enhancing employment outcomes for psychology graduates: Developing a taxonomy of work-integrated learning. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 23(4), 509-525. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_23_4_509_525.pdf

SETA discretionary grants for PIVOTAL programmes

Pivotal means of ‘vital or critical importance’; but is also used as an acronym meaning professional, vocational, technical, and academic learning programmes resulting in occupational qualifications on the National Qualifications Framework (NQF), more especially for scarce and critical skills.

Seta (plural -tae) in biology are a bristle-like appendages, stalks, hair or bristles, used as sensory organs (e.g. spiders), for locomotion (e.g. earthworms), or adhesion to vertical surfaces (e.g. feet of geckos); but also used as an acronym meaning Sector Education and Training Authority (SETA). List of Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs).

Discretionary grants are exactly what is states, funds allocated at sole discretion, not a given, and there are several ‘hoops to jump through to try and implement them’ say SDF Corp. Group (n.d.). The aim of discretionary grants is to encourage stakeholders to contribute towards Skills Development, focussing on scarce and critical skills producing projects within a sector or industry, such as:

• Learnerships
• Work integrated learning (WIL)
• Internships
• Bursaries
• Skills programmes

The discretion rests with the SETA accounting authority concerned, and dependent on the funds available. The relevant SETA’s discretionary grants policy, guidelines, and specific criteria apply. Extensive skills planning and skills audits are undertaken; and participating organisations or businesses are required to ensure that all skills programmes are linked to the industry’s scarce and critical skills. All Skills Development Levy payments must be up-to-date; annual workplace skills plan (WSP) including PIVOTAL and non-PIVOTAL, and previous annual training report (ATR) must be submitted on time; and application must be made by means of the prescribed SETA Discretionary Grant application form during the window of opportunity. After SETA approval, a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) will be entered, stipulating the amount of the grant given as well as the terms and conditions of such a grant.

The maxim on the South African Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) webpage reads: ‘Together, Turning Every Workplace into a Training Space”. The Skills Development branch of DHET is concerned with the implementation of both the Skills Development Act and the Skills Development Levy Act. The Skills Levy income—collected in terms of sections 7 (1) and 8 (2) (a) read with 8 (3) (b) of the Skills Development Levies Act—is distributed in accordance to the National Skills Development Strategy to respective Sectoral Education and Training Authorities (SETAs).

The Government Notice, published 3 December 2012 by the Minister of Higher Education and Training—G35940, RG9867, GoN990—contains the new regulations pertaining to mandatory grants payable to levy paying employers, versus the allocation of discretionary PIVOTAL grants. SETAs form an integral part of the framework to develop and improve the skills of the South African workforce. Each SETA produces a sector skills plan. These contribute to the national skills plan, which among others include identified scarce skills.

Each employer with an annual payroll exceeding R500 000 is obliged to contribute 1% of payroll to the skills development fund. Employers are also required to register with the relevant SETA. Each employer is required to annually submit, by a specified date, a workplace skills plan (WSP) with regard to developing the skills of its employees. Each employer is furthermore required to annually submit, by a specified date, an annual training report (ATR). If these are approved by the relevant SETA, then it must allocate the mandatory grant to such a levy paying employer.

SDF Corp. Group is Skills Development Facilitation Corporation Group

Skills Development Facilitation Corporation. (n.d.). Discretionary grants – what are they, and how do I apply? Electronically accessible from; https://sdfcorp.co.za/discretionary-grants-what-are-they-and-how-do-i-apply/

 

About iReflect, a mobile app for reflection in work-integrated learning

Reflective practice is of significance regarding learning and assessment of tertiary programmes that includes work-integrated learning (WIL) in the curriculum. Making sense of, learning from experiences, transformative, and deep learning of students are supported by reflective practice. However, the distribution of students in remote areas that lack internet access, present challenges to support and scaffold reflective practice. This prompted the identification of the combination of the need for a mobile app, integrated with an e-portfolio platform, and an institutional learning management system. “A key aim was to develop an app that could be used by students to practice and document reflection for learning, both on and off-line …” say Harvey, Walkerden, Semple, McLachlan, and Lloyd (2019: 57).

An ‘App’ is an abbreviated form of the word ‘application’, clarifies Techtarget (2011). It is a software program that is designed to perform a specific or narrow function directly for the user or, in some cases, for another application programme. Simply put, an app is software that enables specific tasks. Apps play significant part of the technology-driven world we live in, say Indeed (2021). An ‘App’ is a type of software that, in most cases, is installed to run on a smartphone, tablet, computer, or other electronic devices. It is most frequently referred to a mobile application.

Harvey et al. (2019: 56) indicate that “learning through WIL is a complex concept and experience” and that “a myriad of diverse influencing factors need” to be considered about reflection. Whatever reflection tool was to be devised, it needed to align and fit with varied contexts. They conceptualise reflection as the “deliberate and conscientious process that employs a person’s cognitive, emotional and somatic capacities to mindfully contemplate on past, present or future (intended or planned) actions in order to learn, better understand and potentially improve future actions” (p. 57).

Smartphone ownership is prevalent amongst young adults in developed economies, which offer opportunities for, and makes demands on WIL educators. Given that mobile devices are used extensively for messaging, blogging, note taking, and casual photography, it seems an obvious means to support and scaffold reflective practice say Harvey et al. (2019: 58). The primary design choice with regard mobile learning is the use of a web browser or apps. Vodovatova (n.d.) differentiates between a mobile app and a mobile website, saying that “the mobile website is accessed by the user via the Internet (therefore requires being online) and the downloadable application is a separate app installed on the phone and can be accessed both online as well as offline”. She defines:

• A mobile website is a website for the design of which has been scaled and optimized for mobile devices. Typically, it features smaller fonts, fewer page elements, and less white space (compared to traditional desktop versions.)
• The mobile app is a separate program stored locally on your phone that uses the device’s hardware and software features and usually creates a better, more intuitive, and faster user experience.

Harvey et al. (2019: 58) indicate that because apps appear “to be most successful for processes or tasks which are completed regularly”, and because apps could cater for remote offline usage, apps appear to be a good choice to support and scaffold reflection.

Table 4 (Harvey et al., 2019: 65-66) below, portrays user stories derived from research, to serve as a platform to design software that matches learning needs. Each row represents a use of a reflective practitioner to maximise learning, which informed the development of the prototype iReflect app.

Harvey, M., Walkerden, G., Semple, A., McLachlan, K. & Lloyd, K. (2019). What we can learn from the iReflect project: Developing a mobile app for reflection in work-integrated learning. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 20(1), 55-69. Accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_20_1_55_69.pdf

Indeed Editorial Team. (2021). What Is an App? Types of Apps and Examples. Published 4 February 2020, and Updated 23 July 2021. Accessible from https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/what-is-an-app

Techtarget Contributor. (2011). Definition of ‘app’. Techtarget Network. Accessible from https://www.techtarget.com/searchmobilecomputing/definition/app

Vodovatova, E. (n.d.) Mobile app vs mobile website: What to choose? Editor, The App Solutions. Accessible from https://theappsolutions.com/blog/development/app-vs-website/

Internships, valuable CV-polishing learning or exploitation?

“No universally accepted definition of an internship” exists, indicates Stewart (2021: 17-18), and citing The Economist (2014), saying it is “a spell of CV-burnishing work experience”. The terminology (internship), in use for more than a century, originated in medical education, where it denotes a postgraduate period of clinical training of doctors under supervision, but also spread across many other professions and occupational fields to provide knowledge and skills in the workplace. Internships may serve “to satisfy the requirements of education or training courses”; or offered by employment service providers to job seekers as part a labour-market programme; or by established business to offer a taste of the nature of work in a particular profession, or to test out applicants. However, job seekers may further initiate internships in order to supplement résumés, or to gain contacts. Both known as ‘open-market’ internships. Maake-Malatji (2021: 137) indicate that in “South Africa ‘low- or no-pay “creative internships” are proliferating at an astonishing rate”.

Maake-Malatji (2021: 132) indicates that the terms ‘intern’ and ‘internship’ are defined in various ways, frequently depending on the field. A person “employed at an entry-level position in an organisation in a structured programme to gain practical experience in a particular occupation or profession” is usually deemed an ‘intern’ he says, and cites Stellenbosch University’s guidelines “which describe an internship as a planned, structured and managed programme that provides work experience for an agreed period of time”. An alternative description of an internship, he says, is a “career specific work experience that one undertakes during/after one’s studies in order to gain the practical experience required to operate and make a positive contribution with respect to the career path one eventually pursues”.

Stewart, Owens, O'Higgins and Hewitt (2021: 2) cites Ross Perlin (2012), who published ‘Intern nation: how to earn nothing and learn little in the brave new economy’ and who stated “a global fact of life [is that] internships are … a significant source of cheap, flexible white-collar labor and a major steppingstone to affluence and professional success. They grant access to those who can afford them, and block further progress for those who cannot”. Maake-Malatji (2021: 141) says that in South African context are several higher education institutions, “based on their recognition within the national and international spheres, gain leverage for their graduates in the world of work”, contributing to inequality and exclusion for students from an underprivileged institutions. The struggle for resources by underprivileged institutions is prevalent, and says “for black graduates, education is a tool to do away with poverty”.

Stewart et al. (2021: 2) observe that little has changed during the past decade; that “internships have become even more firmly entrenched in the transition from education to work”; and that it “is still not attracting the attention it deserves” as forms of ‘work-based learning’ (p. 5). Stewart et al. (2021: 3) qualify what they mean by the term ‘internship’, or ‘traineeship’ as sometimes called in Europe, “to be any arrangement for the performance of work within a business or organization which is primarily intended to provide experience, skills and/or contacts that will help the worker obtain employment or other work opportunities in the future”. They caution that the definition is far from exact and that “it does not matter whether the internship is undertaken during, after or as part of a formal scheme of education, training or government assistance”. They, however, “distinguish an internship from an apprenticeship, on the basis that the latter seeks in a more structured (if not always formal) way to provide all the skills needed to practise a particular trade or profession”.

Whereas the traditional apprenticeship model “has always been premised on the idea of learning a particular trade or craft, while performing [paid] work to practise what has been learnt and to hone the skills involved”, in recent decades there “has been the steady decoupling of training from paid employment” observe Stewart et al. (2021: 3-4). Furthermore, the prevailing modern form of apprenticeship (and the contemporary ‘learnership’ in South Africa) “typically requires time release from work to attend classes at an educational institution”, “however, on-the-job instruction still remains an integral element of these schemes” explain Stewart et al. (2021: 3). Regardless of what called, “licensing or accreditation schemes often require a period of time to be spent working under the supervision of experienced practitioners” (p. 4).

Several drivers and pressures are causing the disconnecting of training from paid employment, say Stewart et al. (2021: 5). The volatility of global markets on the one hand, and pressure on enterprises to accomplish adequate returns to shareholders on the other, result in reduced long-term investment in training. ‘Grow your own timber’ in-house entry-level training programmes are far less prevalent. It is evident that the costs of training significantly shifted from business to the job seeker, the employee and the state. Often funds for training and education are limited to recovery of Skills Development Levy expenditure.

The pedagogical belief of further and higher education institutions that certain knowledge, and in particular skills, are best acquired through real-life experiences, is contributing to growth of need for internships, alternatively termed ‘work-integrated (or experiential) learning’, opportunities. There is further increasingly a demand for graduates who are ‘work ready’, say Stewart et al. (2021: 5). These two drivers towards, however, are impeded by limited paid-learning opportunities and constraints with regard to state funding made available through Sectoral Education & Training Authorities (SETAs) by means of discretionary grants.

Maake-Malatji, M.I. (2021). The law and regulation of internships in South Africa. . In Stewart, A., Owens, R., O'Higgins, N. & Hewitt, A. (2021). Internships, Employability and the Search for Decent Work Experience, Ch. 8, 130-144. Electronically accessible from https://doi.org/10.4337/9781800885042

Stewart, A. (2021). The nature and prevalence of internships. In Stewart, A., Owens, R., O'Higgins, N. & Hewitt, A. (2021). Internships, Employability and the Search for Decent Work Experience, Ch. 2, 17-33. Electronically accessible from https://doi.org/10.4337/9781800885042

Stewart, A., Owens, R., O'Higgins, N. & Hewitt, A. (2021). Internships: A policy and regulatory challenge. In Stewart, A., Owens, R., O'Higgins, N. & Hewitt, A. (2021). Internships, Employability and the Search for Decent Work Experience, Ch. 1, 2-16. Electronically accessible from https://doi.org/10.4337/9781800885042

Problem-based learning through community engagement

“Service learning and problem-based learning (PBL) are distinct”, yet related and potentially synergistic paradigms say McDonald and Ogden-Barnes (2013: 281) and indicate that:

• The essence of problem-based learning (PBL), as form of work-integrated learning (WIL) entail exposure of students to ‘real world’ or simulated organisational or operational challenges, and the development of solutions thereto
• Service learning is deemed valuable in developing the social conscious of students, and is actively promoted as an educational strategy for developing stronger links between the educational institution and its community

PBL resorts within the constructivist paradigm, and is aimed at developing the abilities of students “to think, collaborate, and synthesise in the pursuit of solutions, applying personal, interpersonal, professional and academic learning and experiences to a ‘real world’ issue” (McDonald and Ogden-Barnes, 2013: 281). However, there is a distinct difference PBL and problem-solving learning, in that the latter is concentrated “on eliciting answers to questions posed specifically in relation to the discipline curriculum” they indicate. Furthermore, PBL “is characterized by flexibility and diversity in the sense that it can be implemented in a variety of ways in and across different subjects and disciplines in diverse contexts” they point out. The ultimate success of PBL as “learning strategy is the identification, design and communication of the problem itself, a factor which has been revealed to be complex and multi-dimensional” (p. 282).

Service learning, as form of experiential learning, which entail students and community members together attending to community issues of concern. These issues provide context for academically rigorous assignments, connecting community experience with specific teaching and learning goals. Service learning (SL) is labelled by many alternatives, such as “community-engagement, community-pedagogy, community-knowledge exchange and community-based learning” (McDonald and Ogden-Barnes, 2013: 283). The essence of SL involves students volunteering and applying time, intellect, skills and abilities, as part of their curriculum, towards community advancement. SL may be subject or discipline specific or integrate multiple disciplines in pursuing an educational institution’s community engagement vision and goals. The implementation of effective SL or community engagement (CE) initiatives entail significant resource implications, and may result in real-world versus academic-world contradictions, caution McDonald and Ogden-Barnes (2013: 283).

McDonald and Ogden-Barnes (2013: 290) present the following recommendations with regard to the PBL-SL/CE interface:

• Consider [the] resource implications early and dedicate a working group to design, market and project manage the event
• Position the event against the institution’s community engagement agenda to demonstrate relevance and build internal rapport
• Secure senior management ownership/buy in
• Create a distinct brand, theme and set of promotional resources for the event that is relevant and appealing to both students and stakeholders
• Discuss and manage stakeholder expectations in relation to the problem or challenge[s] identified
• Encourage inter-disciplinary participation via inter-school promotion
• Actively communicate the benefits of participation to all parties: students, faculty, stakeholders
• Provide in situ support to help overcome any learning hurdles
• Ensure strong dialogue between students and organizations over the duration of the event to ensure that the team’s thinking and ideas remains on track

McDonald, S. & Ogden-Barnes, S. (2013). Problem-based service learning with a heart: Organizational and student expectations and experiences in a postgraduate not-for-profit workshop event. Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 14(4), 281-293. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/APJCE_14_4_281_293.pdf

An Indigenous community-based work-integrated learning model

Access to community-based learning for Indigenous students is presented by Cameron and Rexe (2022) as both feasible and successful. They portray a Canadian case study, derived from an Indigenous storytelling approach of witnessing, and introduce an Indigenous work-integrated learning conceptual model. The model is based on a perspective of the medicine wheel, with the student at the centre, surrounded by the community, training providers, funders, and industry as four quadrants. The model facilitates learning that is grounded in culture and Indigenous ways of knowing, doing, and being. The model is based on the medicine wheel because of one of the author’s sense making of the components of success.

The medicine wheel is essentially a circular symbol, broken into four quadrants of different colours, most often yellow, red, black, and white, explain Tribal Trade (n.d.). Cameron and Rexe (2022) point out that there are a variety and diversity of medicine wheel teachings and representations inspired by the stories, values, and beliefs of different nations. As metaphor, the medicine wheel emphasizes interconnectedness and interrelatedness of all things. Tribal Trade (n.d.). Indicate that various attributes assigned to the four quadrants and may, for example, include the four directions, the four states of being, the four sacred medicines, the four seasons, the four elements, the four stages of life.

Indigenous community-based work-integrated learning (WIL) model, figure 1 below, depicts how the student in the focal point, thus merging Western and Indigenous ways of being and doing. A key ingredient of the Canadian Indigenous community and economic development “is fostering economic self-sufficiency and socio-economic equality” and “inclusive of Indigenous culture and community” (p. 204). A priority is the increased access to post-secondary education and training in skilled trades. Indigenous peoples were as a result of colonization subjected to systemic barriers of access to various forms of post-secondary education, participation therein and attainment. Financial constraints and geographic non-proximity exacerbate the situation. Increased attention to culturally responsive teaching practices, inclusion of Indigenous knowledges, the use of Indigenous pedagogy, and land- or community-based education are furthermore of significance. Community-based opportunities do reduce barriers, meet the needs of Indigenous learners, and provide access at rural and remote areas, enabling individuals to learn within their community. It is said that quality community-based training is made feasible through intentional community engagement. Of significant importance is the development of relationships that are reciprocal, reflect mutual respect, where authority is shared, and goals, objectives and outcomes co-created (p. 205).

A significant finding conveyed by Cameron and Rexe (2022: 205-6) is that both employers and training providers that “provide both ‘pastoral’ (meaning guidance, social, and counseling support) and academic support” are more likely to accomplish increased completion rates. The use of ethnographic methods, Lave and Wenger’s legitimate peripheral participation, as well as Billett’s situated learning are further, among others, mentioned.

The authors conclude that the medicine wheel can be used as a teaching tool in programme design and for supporting student success. It is believed that the use would result in strong high-quality community-based partnerships. Reading of the source article is strongly recommended.

Cameron, M. & Rexe, D. (2022). Community-based access to apprenticeship: An Indigenous work-integrated learning model. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 23(2), 203-218. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_23_2_203_218.pdf.

Tribal Trade. (n.d.) The indigenous medicine wheel, native medicine wheel explained. Electronically accessible from https://us.tribaltradeco.com/blogs/medicine-wheel/medicine-wheel-teachings-native-medicine-wheel-system-explained

What is the medicine wheel? (2020). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S7nb4rJ_N14

Recommendations towards guiding the development of strategic Indigenous WIL initiatives

Nielsen, Livernoche and Ramji (2022) analysed work-integrated learning (WIL) literature specific to Indigenous students. They found significant disparities in access, retention, and success pertaining WIL programmes, as well as barriers and unrealised opportunities to expand and transform WIL practices. The ‘UVic Co-op and Career Services’[1], of the University of Victoria, in Canada, developed[2] in partnership with institutions from across British Columbia, and with support of the ‘Association for Co-operative Education and Work-Integrated Learning’[3] (ACE-WIL) BC/Yukon, publicly-accessible, through the Indigenous WIL Resource Hub[4] (IRH), resources towards strategic Indigenous WIL initiatives.

Nielsen et al. (2022: 147-150) could not derive from the international body of scholarly knowledge both clear and actionable directives, or strategic approaches towards creating more indigenously inclusive participative, culturally relevant, equitable, and accessible WIL programmes. However, the literature provided a better understanding of the process through which practitioners might support Indigenous student success. They offer ten recommendations to this end:

1. Be continuously guided by, and accountable to, Indigenous participants, collaborators, and advisors

The Latin slogan ‘Nihil de nobis, sine nobis’, meaning ‘nothing about us without us’ conveys the notion that strategies and policies should not be decided without the full and direct reciprocal and continuous participation of the members of the group/s that might be affected or that are involved. Direction should be taken from Indigenous leaders, accountability exercised and where appropriate compensation provided. The aim to build together supportive and respectful relationships.

2. Invest in Indigenous community-building on campuses and within work-integrated learning networks

Institutional, as well as Indigenous leadership support, for community initiatives is emphasised. The creation of “spaces where Indigenous WIL students feel welcome and respected in bringing their whole selves to environments in higher education and work” (Nielsen et al. 2022: 148) is important.

3. Collaborate with Indigenous communities and students to develop new work-integrated learning placements

Placement coordinators must engage, ask rather than making assumptions, and not impose institutional goals on Indigenous communities.

4. Build flexibility into work-integrated learning programmes and placements

It is very important to take into consideration the potential social and financial barriers with regard to Indigenous and rural student participation. Flexibility is emphasised in providing for part-time and remotely accessible placements. Personalisation of WIL by allowing students to present own learning plans and goals, based on own definitions of success, is encouraged.

5. Increase financial support for indigenous work-integrated learning students

Several financial barriers are frequently experienced by Indigenous students. One such is having to relocate for WIL opportunities and working for less or no pay. Compensation and financial support is deemed necessary. The terms of funding packages at times end before completion of the prerequisite WIL of qualifications, yet living expenses continue.

6. Create awareness of work-integrated learning programs and opportunities

Publishing of success stories and distribution of information about Indigenous WIL opportunities can be done through posters, video interviews, blogs, social media, pamphlets, etc.

7. Expand indigenous counselling and advising services

Mentoring and knowledgeable, sensitive academic advisors are strongly encouraged.

8. Work with hiring partners in decolonizing and indigenizing practices

WIL coordinators should sensitise employers and placement partners to create equitable workplaces that would recognise the diverse experiences and contributions of Indigenous students and accommodating their needs. This can be done by creating resources, such as short informational videos and pamphlets, and through workshops addressing what decolonized and Indigenised hiring and workplace practices entail. Employers may further be encouraged to provide flexibility by accommodating the needs of remotely located students, as well as those with dependents and care obligations.

9. Respond to the needs and concerns of indigenous students navigating work-integrated learning hiring processes

Nielsen et al. (2022: 149) encourage the recognition of “the knowledge and agency of” Indigenous students by taking “active steps to keep lines of communication open with students so to facilitate relationship-building and so to remain responsive to changing student concerns”.

10. Provide specialized training for work-integrated learning staff and human resources professionals

Gatekeepers to WIL programmes and placements, such as WIL coordinators and human resources professionals, should challenge discriminatory procedures and systems; as well as offer anti-racism, unconscious bias, cultural intelligence, and Indigenous cultural sensitivity training.

The recommendations above informed and guided the creation of the Indigenous WIL Resource Hub (IRH). Good practice “must be informed and carried out through long-term and close partnerships with local communities and stakeholders” say Nielsen et al. (2022: 147). They emphasise that none of the recommendations must be perceived as short-term projects, nor regarded as free standing. On the contrary, a holistic approach is required, “as well as sustainable, long-term timelines, commitments, and partnerships” say Nielsen et al. (2022: 150).

Nielsen, J., Livernoche, R. & Ramji, K. (2022). The Indigenous Work-integrated Learning Resource Hub: A needs-based approach to addressing barriers and opportunities for Indigenous students. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 23(2), 139-152. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_23_2_139_152.pdf

[1] https://www.uvic.ca/coop/contact-us/co-op-and-career-services/index.php

[2] https://www.uvic.ca/coop/contact-us/co-op-and-career-services/announcements/2022-07-indigenous-resource-hub.php

[3] https://acewilbc.ca/

[4] https://acewilbc.ca/projects/indigenous-wil-resource-hub/

A community is required for workplace-based learning (‘it takes a community to offer’)

‘It Takes a Village’ by Jane Cowen-Fletcher (1994) is a colourfully illustrated story that portrays a proverb attributed to West Africa, namely ‘it takes a village to raise a child’.

Yemi's mother asks her to care for her younger brother and the girl is delighted at the prospect of taking on a grown-up task. The three of them set out to the village market [in Benin, West Africa], where Mama will sell mangoes. Yemi soon loses Kokou, but instead of the terrible things she imagines happening to him, the toddler is lovingly cared for by all of the adults he meets-he is fed, given something to drink, played with, and allowed to nap. Yemi discovers that caring neighbours have been watching them both all along.

The proverb ‘it takes a village’ means an entire community of people is needed to interact positively with children for those children to grow up in a safe and healthy environment. The origins of the proverb has been researched, but not pinpointed. It is believed to embody the spirit of several African cultures, for example (Wikipedia):

• In Lunyoro (Bunyoro) there is a proverb that says “Omwana takulila nju emoi,” whose literal translation is “A child does not grow up only in a single home.”
• In Kihaya (Bahaya) there is a saying, “Omwana taba womoi,” which translates as “A child belongs not to one parent or home.”
• Kijita (Wajita) has the proverb, “Omwana ni wa bhone,” meaning regardless of a child's biological parents, its upbringing belongs to the community.
• In Swahili, the proverb “Asiye funzwa na mamae hufunzwa na ulimwengu” means roughly the same: "Whomsoever is not taught by the mother will be taught with the world."

The notion ‘it takes a village’ has subsequently been adopted by several authors, applied to a multitude of scenarios, and other books pubished. The definition of work-integrated learning (WIL) of the Canadian body for Co-operative Education and Work-integrated Learning (CEWIL) cited by Nielsen, Livernoche and Ramji (2022: 139) accurately captures the essence of workplace-based learning (WPBL, as form of WIL). CEWIL defines WIL as “a model and process of curricular experiential education which formally and intentionally integrates a student's academic studies within a workplace or practice setting. WIL experiences include an engaged partnership of at least: an academic institution, a host organization and a student”. The origins of WIL (and cooperative education) emphasised the close collaboration of academic institutions with the relevant community of practice, within the relevant industry that is involved, with regard to the necessary workplace experiences that form part of the curriculum. In addition, workplace mentoring by experienced practitioners, play a significant role in WPBL.

The Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework (HEQSF) of the Department of Higher Education and Training (South African Government, 2014), which indicates that the incorporation of work-integrated learning (WIL) into the curriculum is characteristic of vocational and professionally-oriented qualifications. The HEQSF, §35 (p. 17, emphases added) states that where the WIL component “takes the form of workplace-based learning, it is the responsibility of institutions that offer programmes requiring credits for such learning to place students into appropriate workplaces” and add that “such workplace-based learning must be appropriately structured, properly supervised and assessed”.

However, work-integrated learning need not necessary involve actual work. The HEQSF differentiates, in §34 (p. 17), various forms of work-integrated learning (WIL), namely:

• simulated learning [also known as simulated work experiences (SWEs)]
• work-directed theoretical learning [WDTL]
• problem-based learning [PBL]
• project-based learning [PjBL]
• workplace-based learning [WPBL] — Three Council on Higher Education publications (CHE: 2004a, 2004b & 2014) provide criteria with regard to work-based learning (WBL)

The South African Council on Higher Education, as independent statutory body and Quality Council for Higher Education (CHE: n.d.), published (CHE: 2011) a ‘Good Practice Guide’ towards work-integrated learning which deliberated the various modes mentioned above. The CHE (2014, Criterion 15, emphases added) recognises that ‘it takes a village’, by stating that “appropriate arrangements will be needed for placement, mentoring and supervision” and reiterates the “coordination of work-based learning must be done effectively, including adequate infrastructure, effective communication, recording of progress made, monitoring and mentoring”, plus the following:

• Learning agreements or contracts implemented through which the student, the higher education institution, the employer (workplace-based learning provider) and mentor negotiate, approve, adhere to agreed roles and responsibilities, and assess the objectives and outcomes of the learning process
• Regular and effective communication taking place and good working relations are maintained between the institution, students, mentors and employers involved
• System (both at the institution and at the place of workplace-based learning in operation to regularly and systematically monitor and record the progress of each student’s learning experience
• Mentoring system that enables each student to recognise his/her strengths and weaknesses, to develop existing and new abilities, and to gain knowledge of work practices

Nielsen et al. (2022: 139-140) indicate “a range of WIL programs: co-operative education (co-op), internships, entrepreneurships, apprenticeships, service learning, applied research projects, mandatory professional practicum/clinical placement, field placement, and work experience”; and add that “strategic WIL placements in partnership with Indigenous groups also offer opportunities for capacity-building, cultural revitalization, and community development”.

CHE (Council on Higher Education)

Cowen-Fletcher, J. (1994). It Takes a Village. Scholastic Press. [Information about accessible from https://janecowen-fletcher.com/it-takes-a-village]

Council on Higher Education (n.d.) Legislative and policy mandate. Electronically accessible from https://www.che.ac.za/about-us/legislative-and-policy-mandate

Council on Higher Education (2004a). Higher Education Quality Committee. Criteria for Programme Accreditation. Electronically accessible from https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/che2020-c5efd.appspot.com/o/website%2Fyxqlkgy7gwo1.pdf?alt=media&token=c1ea5d6e-2e05-463d-9f2b-bbf92d4b402b

Council on Higher Education (2004b). Higher Education Quality Committee. Criteria for Institutional Audits. Electronically accessible from https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/che2020-c5efd.appspot.com/o/website%2Fjh3xgy9ub11.pdf?alt=media&token=aa1b8117-5414-4e70-a363-50dc924a7d42

Council on Higher Education (2011). Work-Integrated Learning: Good Practice Guide. HE Monitor No. 12, August 2011. Pretoria: IeCommunications. Electronically accessible from https://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/Higher_Education_Monitor_12.pdf

Council on Higher Education (2014). Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Programme Accreditation Criteria, pp. 81 – 107. In Distance Higher Education Programmes in a Digital Era: Good Practice Guide. Electronically accessible from https://www.saide.org.za/documents/CHE_-_Distance_Higher_Education.pdf

Nielsen, J., Livernoche, R. & Ramji, K. (2022). The Indigenous Work-integrated Learning Resource Hub: A needs-based approach to addressing barriers and opportunities for Indigenous students. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 23(2), 139-152. Electronically accessible from https://www.ijwil.org/files/IJWIL_23_2_139_152.pdf

South African Government (2014), Department of Higher Education and Training, Government Notice No 819. Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework. Government Gazette No. 38116, 17 October 2014. Electronically accessible from https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201410/38116gon819.pdf

Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/It_takes_a_village

The relevance of #DataMesh to work integrated learning

Good data management of various aspects of work integrated learning (WIL) is important and may include, for example:

• Contact details of stakeholders, decision-makers, influencers, key role players and members of the relevant community of practice in general
• Established providers of experiential learning opportunities and mentors at such
• Registered students, including their academic progression
• Actual placements of students, including the provider and mentor details, and the learning agreement of each student
• Capturing of the learning activities of students
• Records of mentoring or supervision, especially if a professional or statutory requirement
• Records of monitoring and progress tracking of students, and of communication that occur
• Records of facilitated reflection on learning (experiences) by students
• Formative assessments and summative evaluation of WIL

Generally, data such as mentioned above, are captured in a range of data bases, such as the institution’s official student administration system, and data bases of academic and administrative staff responsible for WIL modules in a variety of forms. What is deemed needed is integration of the various forms of data, which is where ‘data mesh’ is deemed relevant.

Zhamak Dehghani, while a principal technology consultant at Thoughtworks, coined the term ‘data mesh’ in 2019, say Christ, Visengeriyeva and Harrer (n.d.), who indicate that ‘data mesh’ is primarily an organizational approach, which cannot be bought from a vendor. Yuhanna (2022) remarks that “A data mesh offers the ability to optimise mixed workloads by matching processing engines and data flows with the right use cases. It interfaces to the event-driven architecture, enabling support for edge use cases.”

Dehghani (2019) found that many organisations are planning or building their third generation data and intelligence platform hoping to democratize data in order to provide business insights with the view of automated intelligent decisions. Proprietary enterprise data warehouse and business intelligence platforms, the first generation, mainly rendered tables and reports which only a small group of specialized people could understand with little positive impact on the business. Complex big data ecosystem with a data lake, the second generation, required hyper-specialized data engineers and similarly impacted little on the actual business. Unfortunately, data platforms that are streaming and analysing real-time data, the third generation, with cloud based storage and machine learning platforms, are addressing only some of the gaps of the previous generations. Dehghani (2019) recommends shifting from the centralized paradigm of a data lake (or predecessor ware house) and embracing a paradigm (data mesh) drawing from contemporary “distributed architecture: considering domains as the first class concern, applying platform thinking to create self-serve data infrastructure, and treating data as a product”.

Dehghani (2020) differentiates operational data from analytical data. Operational data has a transactional nature with regard to the applications running the business; whereas analytical data provide an aggregated view of the facts of the business over time. Analyses are often modelled to provide retrospective or future-perspective insight. Often existing technology, architecture and organization design reflect the divergence of these two data planes; integrated yet separate, two levels of existence. The divergence is causing fragility, as well as a need for continuous extract, transform, and load (ETL) activities; and ever growing complexity of labyrinth of data pipeline between the two planes, as illustrated below (Dehghani, 2020, Figure 1: The great divide of data).

The ‘data mesh’ paradigm “recognizes and respects the differences between these two planes: the nature and topology of the data, the differing use cases, individual personas of data consumers, and ultimately their diverse access patterns” say Dehghani (2020). However, she adds, the ‘data mesh’ paradigm entails an inverted model and topology based on domains. ‘Data mesh’ “offers a more holistic and efficient way to organise, process, and access data” says Cynozure (2022), and “is an approach to how teams and logistics are organised”. Dehghani (2020), Cynozure (2022) and Christ et al. (n.d.) specify four underpinning principles:

1. Domain-oriented decentralized data ownership and architecture — Splitting up the business goals into ideas and concepts within certain boundaries which smaller autonomous data teams can work on
2. Data as a product — The different data domains are productised. Yuhanna (2022) indicates that data as a service (DaaS) is also known as data as a product (DaaP), and that it “offers several business benefits, including supporting a common view of business and customer data using industry standard protocols”.
3. Creating self-serve data infrastructure — Dividing the different domains among smaller autonomous teams and making the self-serve data platforms
4. Federated computational governance — Creating a unified governance and helping to come up with ways for data to flow from one team to another

Gavish (2022) derived three key concepts pertaining a ‘data mesh’ to highlight how it differs from traditional data architectures.

• Domain-oriented data owners and pipelines — who are held accountable for providing their data as products, while also facilitating communication between distributed data across different locations. Domains are further tasked with managing ingestion, cleaning, and aggregation.
• Self-serve functionality — allowing users to abstract the technical complexity and focus on their individual data use cases
• Interoperability and standardization of communications — some data (both raw sources and cleaned, transformed, and served data sets) will be valuable to more than one domain. cross-domain collaboration is enabled by standardisation on formatting, governance, discoverability, and metadata fields, among other data features. Each data domain further define and agree on SLAs and quality measures that they will ‘guarantee’ to its consumers.

It appears a ‘mesh’ connecting the various data sources pertaining the WIL of qualifications is necessary.

Christ, J.; Visengeriyeva, L. & Harrer, S. (n.d.) Data mesh architecture from an engineering perspective. Electronically accessible from https://t.co/HCzrguXmrg

Cynozure. (2022). Data mesh as a framework for data-driven value at scale. Hub & Spoken, Episode 127, 7 April 2022. Electronically accessible from https://t.co/x8qnxRPyt1

Dehghani, Z. (2019). How to move beyond a monolithic data lake to a distributed data mesh. Martin Fowler articles. Electronically accessible from https://martinfowler.com/articles/data-monolith-to-mesh.html

Dehghani, Z.. Data mesh principles and logical architecture. Martin Fowler articles. Electronically accessible from https://martinfowler.com/articles/data-mesh-principles.html

Gavish, L. (2022) What is a data mesh — and is it right for me? HackerNoon, 15 April 2022. Electronically accessible from https://t.co/oMiqO99kBg

Yuhanna, N. (2022). Four emerging data integration trends to assess: To accelerate their performance in data integration, companies are evaluating and adopting a range of contributing technologies. Computer Weekly, 8-14 February 2022, 20-23.