Memos and Memoing

Unfortunately the human mind tends to forget much that has been experienced or observed at quite a rapid rate. When doing research some means is needed to overcome this tendency. Memoing is the act of recording reflective notes about what the researcher (fieldworker, data coder and/or analyst) is learning from the data:

• Memos accumulate as written ideas or records about concepts and their relationships.
• Memos may differ substantially in style and manner.
• They are notes by the researcher to herself/himself about some hypothesis regarding a category or property and especially relationships between categories.
• Memos are contributing substantially to the qualitative research process and its credibility.

Credibility can be defined as the confidence that can be placed in both the data and the analysis. Credibility is synonymous with validity in quantitative research. One of the means to enhance the credibility is to jot notes. The researcher cannot rely on memorizing. The jotting of notes adds to the defensibility of the results.

The research setting does not always allow for jotting notes, and memoing can even compromise the credibility in certain situations, in which case mental notes must be made. Unfortunately these electrical traces in the brain have an even higher rate of decay. By jotting down cursory phrases, quotes, key words and the like, during inconspicuous moments, the researcher can jog her/his memory when comprehensive fieldnotes are later compiled.

An important use of memoing is for qualitative data analysis purposes, such as in ethnography and grounded theory. Ethnography is a form of qualitative research that focuses on the discovery and/or comprehensive description of the culture of a group of people. Grounded theory is another form of qualitative research that aims at generating and developing a theory from data that is systematically gathered and analyzed. In both ethnography and grounded theory, data analysis happens at two levels: textual and conceptual, which are however never clearly demarcated.

• Textual entails reading the complete corpus of field data and memoing throughout. Barney Glaser has emphasized that memoing is prioritized, or, differently stated, when an idea occurs the researcher pauses and records it. This process is often referred to as open coding. It is as if the researcher must build a puzzle without a picture and starts sorting through the pieces of data. As the researcher forms ideas they are written down as memos.—Theoretical memoing is about attempts to derive meaning from the data. Methodological or operational memoing comprises reminders, instructions or critiques that the researcher writes to herself/himself as the analysis unfolds.
• The conceptual level entails theorizing about concepts, categories, properties and themes, and the relationships between these. This is often referred to as axial coding, and integrative memos are used. The researcher begins to fit the pieces of the puzzle together. Sometimes a piece that initially appeared to fit is discovered not to fit. As the researcher becomes more theoretically sensitive, the fit between conceptual pointers and categories becomes easier. It is quite feasible that initial memos later appear rather naïve and erroneous as the researcher gains a better understanding and interpretation.

The analysis is mostly simultaneous or parallel and often entails recurring phases of data collection, coding, memoing and sorting. Memos help the researcher to achieve an analytical distance from the raw data and force the researcher to conceptualize.

• Memoing involves total creative freedom.
• There are no rules regarding writing, grammar or style.
• A memo is purely an instrument to capture the outflow of ideas, insights and observations.
• When the researcher writes the thoughts down they become concrete and they are recorded.
• There are no wrong or poorly written memos.
• Each researcher develops her/his own style.
• Memos evolve and increase in complexity, density, clarity, and accuracy as the data analysis progresses.
• Memos written later may negate, amend, extend and/or clarify earlier written ones.
• Memos keep the researcher imbedded in the empirical reality and contribute to the trustworthiness of qualitative research. Trustworthiness is synonymous with reliability in quantitative research. For this reason, regardless of time constraints, memoing should never be regarded as superfluous. It is a very important element of qualitative data analysis.

There are a few hints or technical features for good memoing. It is not advisable to write in the margins of transcripts or fieldnotes, because initial notes might call for review and might result in confusion. Memos should always be dated and referenced with regard to what they refer to. Memos should contain a heading and should be cross-referenced. A list of emerging codes should be kept handy to avoid duplications. Memos are never about people but rather about conceptual ideas derived from incidents. Researchers should never be hesitant to modify existing memos. Restrict each memo to one idea. If two ideas are together on one card, this complicates the sorting later.

Diagrams are graphic memos and play a very important conceptual role. Diagrams are visual devices that depict something. They illustrate the density and complexity of the qualitative analysis. A diagram helps the researcher to discover gaps and flaws in the relationships of categories and of the logic. Often diagrams are preceded by listings, especially early in the analysis process. These listings provide a foundation for diagrams.

There are several versions of personal computer software packages available for qualitative data analyses that lend themselves to memoing. There are also blogs on the internet that the inexperienced user may access for tips and ideas regarding the use of such software. Some programs further enable the researcher to graphically display and examine both hierarchical and relational connections among codes.

In summary, the act of recording reflective notes or memos during data collection and analysis is called memoing. These memos add to the credibility and trustworthiness of qualitative research. Memoing aids the analysis in that the researcher records the meanings derived from the data. There are no rules pertaining to memoing, however, each memo should contain one idea, should be dated and referenced, or even a diagram. Memos evolve as the research proceeds.

Groenewald, T. 2008. Memos and Memoing (Vol 2: pp. 505-6). In Given, L.M. (Ed) 2008. The SAGE encyclopedia of qualitative research methods. Los Angeles, Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE Publications

References:

Emmerson, R.M., Fretz, R.I. & Shaw, L.L. (1995). Writing ethnographic fieldnotes. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Glaser, B.G. (1992). Basics of grounded theory analysis — emergence vs forcing. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press.

Golafshani, N. (2003). Understanding Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research. The Qualitative Report, 8(4), December 2003, 597-607. Retrieved December 14, 2006, from http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR8-4/golafshani.pdf

Lofland, J. & Lofland, L.H. (1999). Data logging in observation: fieldnotes. In A. Bryman & R.G. Burgess (eds.), Qualitative research. Volume III. London: Sage.

Miles, M.B. & Huberman, A.M. (1984). Qualitative data analysis: a sourcebook of new methods. Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage.

Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research — techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. (2nd ed.) Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Comments

[Pierre]

Interesting article. thanks.

Pierre

http://www.qualitative-research-canada.com/