Qualitative inquiry growth

Women speaking for themselves

A significant influence on postmodern interviewing comes from feminism. Research methodology in patriarchal societies is depicted by the gold anodized aluminium commemorative plaques placed on board the 1972 Pioneer 10 (the first spacecraft to travel through the asteroid belt) and in 1973 Pioneer 11 (the second mission to investigate Jupiter and the outer solar system and the first to explore Saturn and its main rings), featuring a pictorial message, in case either Pioneer 10 or 11 were intercepted by extraterrestrial beings.

Of significance, are the naked figures of a man and a woman, with the right hand of the man raised as a sign of good will, but not the woman's—as she is spoken for—similar to the traditional interviewing methodology: "woman have always already been spoken for" (Fontana 2001:167). This in no longer acceptable in ethically responsible research, but remains of sexist gender relationship may still impact on interviews:

• If males interview females, the males can be domineering
• When women interview men, women may be reluctant to control the focus of the interview
• Male participants are sometimes guilty of being dismissive of female interviewers

Equality of gender in a negotiated dialogue must be pursued. Participants should be allowed to express themselves freely. Interviewers should encourage free expression of fears, doubts and feelings.

Fontana, A. 2001. Postmodern trends in interviewing. In Gubrium, J.F. & Holstein, A. (Eds) 2001. Handbook of interview research, context and method. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Interviewing is interactional

Fontana (2001:163) cites Aaron Cicourel (1964) that unveiled the "myth of 'scientific' interviewing" by emphasising the hidden complexity: the implicit decisions, judgements and abstractions made in the process. Fontana (2001:163) points out that according to Cicourel "the interview is an interactional event based on reciprocal stocks of knowledge" and (p. 166) cites Robert Dingwall (1997) who argues that "if the interview is a social encounter, then, logically, it must be analyzed in the same way". The interviewee is not objectified, but a co-member of the communicative partnership.

• In contrast, structured interviewing place the interviewer, as constructive agent, centre stage influencing the outcome.
• The feelings of both interviewer and interviewee, as well as the possibility of deceit need acknowledgement.
• The researcher's potential control of the narrative of what best conveys (in her/his judgement) the social words of those studies must be recognised.
• The editorial authority of the researcher must be recognised.

The aim of the interviewer is to reach a mutual understanding with the interviewee. A dialogic approach is necessary. The different viewpoints of multiple voices should be reflected—highlighting the discrepancies and problems.

Fontana, A. 2001. Postmodern trends in interviewing. In Gubrium, J.F. & Holstein, A. (Eds) 2001. Handbook of interview research, context and method. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

The interview society

Fontana (2001:161) remarks that postmodern epistemologies swayed interviewing to the extent of an "interview society". No longer is interviewing reserved to researchers and investigators, but became part of everyday life: members of society devote much time to asking questions, being asked or to watch television shows about various kinds of people being asked questions. It is as if interviewing became common practice, with no need for instruction. Postmodern interviewing sensibilities include:

• Boundaries between interviewer-and-interviewee became blurred.
• The form of communication is collaborating in constructing the narrative.
• Interviewers are concerned about representation: "whose story are we telling and for what reason" (p. 162).
• Respondents are no longer faceless numbers without any say about analysis or interpretation; instead there is a concern about the understanding of respondents.
• Former unarticulated voices are currently on the fore front.
• Forms of reporting findings expanded to literature, poetry and drama.
• Interviewing itself expanded to audio-visual and electronic modes, such as e-mail and social media.

Fontana, A. 2001. Postmodern trends in interviewing. In Gubrium, J.F. & Holstein, A. (Eds) 2001. Handbook of interview research, context and method. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Doing life-story interviewing

Helping other to get their life-story out and life-story research (a post 28 Dec 2009 on Learning in vivo) are closely related. Atkinson (1995) offers a number of guidelines:

• Decide who you want to interview.
• Explain your purpose to the story-owner/interviewee.
• Take time to prepare—e.g. ready the audio recording equipment and gather background information on the interviewee.
• Create the right setting for the interview.
• Get the story, by using open-ended questions (Download Extract from Atkinson R 1995 The gift of stories) and even photographs that might jog the memory.
• Remember it is not a conversation, but be a good guide and listen well and be responsive and flexible.
• Anticipate emotions to emerge—be sensitive and accommodating.
• Look for connections.
• Be organised, but most importantly be grateful.

Atkinson R. 1995. The gift of stories — practical and spiritual applications of autobiography, life stories and personal myth making. Westport, Conn.: Bergin & Garvey.

Get a life-story started

Suggestions for getting started, are deliberately not called ground rules for writing by Atkinson (1995) because being grounded is not advisable when writing autobiographically, he urges. Steer away from rules, as they restrict, with exclusion of one rule: "don't make any rules" (p. 56).

It is important to feel free to move around; to look down on yourself and gain a fresh perspective. In addition to a sense of freedom is inspiration—filled with enthusiasm: a spirit of wanting to express yourself and a "spirit of wonder, joy, and acceptance" (p. 57), as well as fuelled by motivation.

Atkinson's suggestions include:

• Write firstly for yourself—your own satisfaction and enjoyment—write in a way that let you feel good.
• Listen for your inner voice—authentic expression.
• Allow your deepest feelings to guide you.
• Recall, explore and reflect on memories—it is a source of strength.
• Get to what lies buried in your heart—the lived experiences: create a bank of moments and tap the feelings.
• Write the way you talk, don't waste time editing—get the story out.
• Allow your imagination, be creative and even fanciful. —don't be self-conscious and scared.
• Humour adds flavour and allows hidden truths to surface.
• Look for and make the connections—it empowers—connections are like treads in weaving or tapestry.
• Take a bird's-eye view of your life as a whole—it gives insight and perspective.
• Draw the tree of your life: "roots, trunk, branches, leaves and blossoms" (p. 64). Identify and label each part, where after you write the brief story of each.
• Begin with a time-line, flesh it out and look for distinct separate periods. Describe briefly the main themes or issues and the dominant feelings during each. Identify and arrange the chapters (refer to exhibit 4.1, p. 66, inserted below) in your life.
• Explore the uniqueness of your own birth and/or childhood—the context and the circumstances.
• Look ahead, envision your elder self.

 
Atkinson R. 1995. The gift of stories — practical and spiritual applications of autobiography, life stories and personal myth making. Westport, Conn.: Bergin & Garvey.

Autobiographical writing and life-stages

Exploring our inner realms; digging deep; evoking emotions; bringing out the most important experiences and feelings. 'Self-stories' is a spiritual endeavour of soul-making. It involves reflecting, putting in order, giving voice and uncovering what is at our core. The writing results in becoming more of who we really are and result in a clearer understanding, it enriches.

Self-stories emerge, they evolve and change as people grow, develop and advance in life. Atkinson (1995) advocates that as people reach the time of taking conscious control of their life, they are capable to bring-out their own story to share it with other. Atkinson illustrates the broad stages of life from dependence at birth, through gradually taking control and starting an 'autobiographical memory', which reminded me of Erik Erikson's "eight stages through which a healthily developing human should pass from infancy to late adulthood". The table below summarises Erikson's psychosocial stages to which Atkinson's views are related.

Errikson's Stages	Basic Conflict	Important Events	Outcome	Atkinson (1995)
Infancy (birth to 18 months)	Trust vs. Mistrust	Feeding	Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliabilty, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.	Dependent upon circumstances and what happens impacts self-stories.
Early Childhood (2 to 3 years)	Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt	Toilet Training	Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Success leads to feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.	Gradually acquire an 'autobiographical memory' enabling individuals to relate own experiences to others and store memories.
Preschool (3 to 5 years)	Initiative vs. Guilt	Exploration	Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.
School Age (6 to 11 years)	Industry vs. Inferiority	School	Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.	Limited authorship and control.
Adolescence (12 to 18 years)	Identity vs. Role Confusion	Social Relationships	Teens needs to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.	Figuring out own preferred identity, who we are and want to be and what want to do in life. Become an active author, able to look back and ahead.
Yound Adulthood (19 to 40 years)	Intimacy vs. Isolation	Relationships	Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.	Becoming familiar with changes & transition and realise what is within our control. Fit the parts together.
Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years)	Generativity vs. Stagnation	Work and Parenthood	Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.	Half of life is behind, enabling reflection on what not yet accomplished: might be sense of accomplishment, or might be an urge to salvage or turn for the better.
Maturity(65 to death)	Ego Integrity vs. Despair	Reflection on Life	Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.	Fewer years ahead than behind. It is time to accept our life-story and perhaps add some finishing touches.

There are many ways of telling our own story, Atkinson (1995) asserts—it is important to find the style and way of expression we are comfortable with. He advocates a blurring of boundaries between autobiography, memoirs, journals and other forms.

Atkinson R. 1995. The gift of stories — practical and spiritual applications of autobiography, life stories and personal myth making. Westport, Conn.: Bergin & Garvey.